PE 1109 
.P54 



ESsf 



■ 



■i 



Wm 






_ §m§m IIP 

, . .. . • 

raBSnBnH6M»9 PS •••' 



Htt$8|£fijtj 

I i •■ ■ m 













£°« 



V ,' 






V 






v<r 













If- *b v* 



















r." ♦*' *♦ 



wis*- **o* :^Bf. *ov* .£lmS 



• V* 9 s? 



£°* 



: ^ 




> 




















ft v on. **^ A> 



ft* 







>°^.. 













.Ho. 










xs .- 







*. - 



-. J* 






>°v,. 






•\.I^. 



v«* 



7 • A y *^ o< 




i>. V 




o > 


























^♦* - 



^ .*'.. ^ 


















l v . • • • I 



fc V** .*«^ V .*2fe\ 



•f +>*&'*" 



«**-• 



- v- 



PEIRCE : 



ABRIDGEMENT 



THE GRAMMAR 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



BOSTON: Hf 

WEEKS, JORDAN & CO. 

NEW YORK — ROBINSON, PRATT AND CO. 
WATERTOWN, N. Y. KNOWLTON AND RICE. 

1840. 






^6* 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1840, by 

OLIVER B. PE1RCE, 

in thecfUce of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. 

Entered, also, according to Act of Parliament, in Stationers' Hall, 
London. 



A 



PRESS OF I. 



PREFACE. 



He who would prune a dead tree, should expect the 
laugh of his neighbors, for his pains. He who improves 
a living tree, by pruning it, may be blamed by his co- 
temporaries, for injuring the original shape; but his 
successors, that shall enjoy the richness and abundance of 
the fruit, will duly appreciate his wisdom and his worth. 

He who would write a biography, should represent the 
subject as he was, not as he should have been. He who 
writes for the guidance of the living, should aim to 
show, not so much what men have been, as what they 
should be. Those whose habits are already formed to vice, 
may denounce him, for disturbing the established order 
and repose of society 5 but those who, by his means, shall 
hereafter be trained to the admiration and practice of vir- 
tue, will do justice to his memory. 

He who would give a Grammar of a dead language, has 
only to describe it as it was, when it died. He who treats 
of a living language, should know it as it is, and give 
directions for using it, not merely as it has been used, but 
as it should be, in view of all the facts connected with it. 
Those who have studied and taught a dead theory of 
Grammar, without being able to discover the disagree- 
ment between that and the language, can not but be 
alarmed and indignant at a theoretic departure from an- 
cient maxims, though it has, for its only object, to make 



Grammar a living science, by engrafting theory upon 
practice — by setting the seal of Grammatic approval, to 
language that is correct in itself. 

Egypt and Israel, Greece and Rome, have had, in turn, 
their glory and the grave. Their Literature must have 
lost its brilliance in the wreck of empires which enkindled 
it. The soul that animated it, has gone ; and the Stream 
of Time, that swept over it, has borne to us, not "the 
thing of life," but the relics of w r hat was. Yet, of the 
dimensions of the living, we may judge, from the anatomy 
of the dead. 

If a Language is to be valued, either according to the 
extent of its use, or the amount and importance of light 
effulging from it ; or from both, combined; there is not, 
there never has been, a language that can compare with 
the English ; w T hich, whatever may have been its re- 
sources, and however it may have been regarded, is, 
already, the Sun in the firmament of Literature ; and is 
destined, by the physical, intellectual and moral energy of 
the Anglo-Saxon race, to become, in civilization and re- 
finement ; in mind and morals ; by science, prompting art, 
the great regenerator of the world. 

Then may we not reject the arbitrary terms with which 
the worshippers before the shrine of ancient literature, 
have vainly endeavored to represent, and limit, the genius 
of the English language ; and, laying aside the indefinite 
definitions, and anti-English rules of Syntax, seek to bring 
forth the Language in its own excellence, simplicity and 
clearness ; so developing its principles, both analytical and 
synthetical, that their traits, the names, the definitions and 
the rules, shall be mutually concordant aids for facilitating 
the learner's progress, and rendering available, in prac- 
tice, what he acquires. 



PREFACE. T 

The errors, absurdities and defects of the old works, have 
long been known and admitted. The 'tiresome round, 
which they impose, of uninteresting study, without coun- 
tervailing advantage, is felt and lamented by all. With 
this view of our grammatical affairs, it remains to be seen, 
whether or not the friends of Science will take the trouble 
to investigate a new code of principles — a theory which 
can not make matters worse — which may improve them. 

I have come, as an author, before the public, aiming to 
correct the errors, to remove the absurdities, and supply 
the defects, in this department of science. I offer this, 
my mite, as a contribution to the public fund ; asking, only, 
that those for whose benefit it is intended, will examine, 
discriminate, judge and act. 

If I have succeeded in my purpose, I hope to be useful 
to my fellow-citizens, by accelerating their proficiency in 
the Science of Language — the first and most effective 
auxiliary of every other science ; and to receive, from 
them, the more substantial tokens of their approbation, a 
liberal patronage and support. If I have failed, may my 
work sink, innoxious, to the depths of oblivion, rather than 
remain, like too many others, to burden, not to sustain, 
the rising greatness of the intellectual and moral constitu- 
tion of man. 

OLIVER B. PEIRCE. 

JSTew York, Dec. 29, 1839. 



MAXIM. 



Science, in every department — Physical, Intellectual, 
Moral and Religious, should be so taught, that, when im- 
parted, the principles, by recommending themselves to the 
understanding, can remain, living and fixed, without the 
support of authors' or of teachers' names. 



ADDRESS TO TEACHERS. 



["what is truth? "] 



Consider the persons tinder your care, as rational 
creatures, endowed, by their Creator, with intellectual fac- 
ulties which are capable of being raised, by proper exer- 
cise, to indefinite expansion and power; but which, if 
forced to admit, as truth, the unexamined dogmas of 
schools, will dwindle to the insignificance of mere brutal 
instinct — the imitative propensity of the parrot or the ape. 

Remember, that active belief, founded in conviction, from 
personal investigation, alone can benefit and improve man- 
kind, — that the principles of any theory, on any subject, 
blindly assented to, can not be lasting in their effect ; but, 
like the mist of morning, may be noticed at the time, yet 
pass and are forgotten. Therefore, 

O 3 Never allow your pupils to commit to 

MEMORY WHAT THEY DO NOT UNDERSTAND. 

Never teach, as truth, any thing, however trifling it 
may seem, which Reason's utmost force and brilliancy, 
can ever afterwards imteach. 

What you can not strengthen and improve, do not 
weaken and deform. 

Remember that the fact of your associating with your 
pupils, must, in degree, stamp upon them, in mind and 



Vlll ADDRESS TO TEACHERS. 

morals, In deportment, in every thing that can constitute 
the character of man, the impress of yourself. 

Explain the parts which, to the learners' various capaci- 
ties, shall need to be explained ; and impress on their 
minds the fact, that their proficiency and enjoyment, in 
each succeeding part, will depend on their having acquir- 
ed a thorough knowledge of all that precedes it. 

Teach them that Grammar is but a guide to the under- 
standing in the use of correct language — that Parsing is 
only describing facts, the nature and relations of words, as 
they are used, not as they or some others might have 
been — that authors are but public men, sharing the com- 
mon imperfections of their race — that theories which are 
not philosophical and practical are down-right insult to 
the human mind, and should be at once discarded. , 

Lead them, step by step, from examining the different 
materials of which the fabric of the language is composed, 
to learn the mode of arranging and combining the parts to 
form a just-proportioned and harmonious structure of the 
whole. 

Impress them with the fact, that fifteen minutes per 
day, spent in exercising the understanding, is worth more 
than the whole time wasted with the exercise of memory, 
without the aid of the understanding and judgment. 



INTRODUCTION 



The business of Grammar, is, to give direc- 
tions to the uninformed for choosing, arranging 
and combining words, with particular reference 
to the ideas to be expressed. 

A writer on the science should consider that 
the only object of the student, is, to learn that of 
which he is ignorant. He should, in view of this, 
not only select his terms of distinction from the 
language on which he is treating; but he should 
also take such as he judges are most likely to be 
understood by the pupil ; or, (if explanation is 
necessary) those whose meaning can be longest 
remembered, by being most easily explained, and 
most readily applied. 

He should treat the subject as though he knew 
the pupil to be unacquainted with any other lan- 
guage, and to have but a limited knowledge of his 
own — as all are aware that a child learns his own, 
first, and that not one of a thousand, ever troubles 
himself with any other. In his own, lies, chiefly, 
the theatre of his usefulness and enjoyment : and, 
consequently, the student should be more solicit. 



X INTRODUCTION. 

ous to attain a tlwrovgh knowledge of that, than 
a smattering of all the other languages of the 
globe. 

(Tp* A child is a man in miniature. God has 
constituted the human mind to delight in intel- 
lectual progression. 

Q^ All the learner's confusion, indifference, 
vexation, discouragement, and want of proficiency , 
have originated in the neglect, by authors, and 
oral instructors, of the few obvious principles of 
consistency, suggested in the foregoing remarks. 

i£j° Shall we investigate new theories, hoping 
for improvement ? or shall we merely denounce 
them? Shall we embrace Truth, when found? or 
shall we reject it, because not found before ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LANGUAGE 



1. Is the means of communicating thoughts 
from one to another. 

GRAMMAR 

2. Is the science of language. 

3. It treats of spoken and written words, as signs of 
ideas. 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

4. Consists of an exposition of the principles of 
the English language, and directions for speaking 
and writing it correctly. 

5. It is divided into five parts ; Orthography, Etymology, 
Syntax, Prosody, and Rhetoric. 

ORTHOGRAPHY 

6. Treats of the nature and use of letters, and 
the manner of combining them to form syllables 
and words.* 

* As orthography is ^treated of at large, in most books 
containing the rudiments of the language, I only notice, 



12 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

LETTERS 

7. Are marks or signs of significant sounds, 
being the first principles and least component 
parts of a written language. 

A SYLLABLE 

8. Is a sound spoken by one effort of the voice, 
or a letter, or combination of letters, representing 
that sound ; as, a, an, apt. 

A WORD 

9. Is a sound, or combination of sounds, or its 
representative characters, referring to, or standing 
for, some idea ; as, an apple, truth, harmony, the 
world. 

10. In these examples it is seen that the word an, does 
not, like the word apple, represent a distinct idea ; hut 
refers to the object, denoted by the term apple. So it is 
with the word the; as, " the world" the lion, the elephant. 

THE ENGLISH ALPHABET 

11. Is composed of twenty-six letters; some of 
which, for want of others, have several different 
sounds, and some of which are united to form 
one sound. 

LETTERS 

12. Are of two kinds; vowels and consonants. 

A VOWEL 

13. Is a letter which has a perfect, simple, and 

with brevity, some of the more prominent parts; suppos- 
ing the learner to have acquitted himself well in ortho- 
graphy, before commencing the study of grammar in a 
detached work. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

independent sound, and may, of itself, constitute 
an entire syllable, or be joined to other letters to. 
constitute, with them, one syllable ; as, a, e, o, 
Amel-ia, Sol-o-mon, a-e-ri-al. 

A CONSONANT 

14. Is a letter that is always used in connec- 
tion with a vowel with which it is sounded, and 
cannot, in a word, be used independently of a 
vowel ; as, d, I, n, daylight, noon. 

15. A, e, and o* are always vowels. 

16. I, is a vowel except when immediately fol- 
lowed by a vowel ; in which case it is a conso- 
nant ; as, in min-fon. 

17. U, is a vowel except when sounded like 
w or yu ; in which case it acts the parts of a con- 
sonant and a vowel ; as, in Swabia, wnion, ?7na- 
dilla. 

18. F, is a vowel except when it begins a syl- 
lable, and is immediately followed by a vowel ; in 
which case it is a consonant ; as in youth, yearly. 

19. TV is a consonant when preceding a vowel 
in the same syllable ; as in well, wisdom, z^orth. 
It may be joined to another consonant, to repre- 
sent, with that, a twofold consonant sound; as, 
swell, siv'mg, when. It is often used as a vowel in 
the proper place of u, when preceded by another 
vowel in the same syllable, to represent, with 
that, a twofold vowel sound ; as, in few, bow, 
crozfld, vie?z>.f 

* In the word one, o has the sounds of u and w. 
t The sound of w is that of oo, a vowel sound ; yet, as w 
is never used alone, to constitute a syllable ; but is always, 
2 



14 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



A DIPHTHONG 



20. Is the union of two vowels in one syllable ; 
as, ea f in beat ; on, in ounce. 

A TRIPTHONG 

21. Ts the union of three vowels in one sylla- 
ble ; as, edit, in beau ; ieu, in adzew. 

SPELLING 

22. Is combining letters to form syllables and 
words. 

23. The most rational mode of spelling would be choos- 
ing such letters to compose words, as would guide the 
learner, by the sounds of letters, to the right pronunciation 
of words.* 

WORDS 

24. Are of three kinds ; primitive, derivative, 
and compound. 

A PRIMITIVE WORD 

25. Is one which stands for, or refers to, some 
idea, but which cannot be divided without being 
destroyed ; as, peril, speak, good. 

A DERIVATIVE WORD 

26. Is one which is formed by adding one syl- 

when used in its own place, sounded with its following 
vowel, it is reckoned among the con-sonants, in the cir- 
cumstances above described. 

* It is much to be regretted, that the orthography of the 
English language, is so greatly at variance with this philo- 
sophic principle. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



15 



lable or more (not a full word,) to the primitive; 
as, peril-OMs, speak-er, good-ness. 



A COMPOUND WORD 



27. Is one which is formed by uniting two or 
more entire words ; as, peace-maker, law-giver. 



ETYMOLOGY 

28. Treats of the classification of words, their 
changes and derivations. 



29. Are divided into ten classes, called parts of 
speech. 

Names, Substitutes, Asserters, Adnames, Modifiers, 
Relatives', Connectives, Interrogatives, Repliers, and Ex- 
clamations. 

A NAME 

30. Is a term used to distinguish an object or idea 
that may be considered separately or alone ; as, 

Water, Truth, God, Creator, King, Virtue, Love. 

A SUBSTITUTE 

31. Is a word substituted for a name, phrase, 
or sentence ; as, 

John was my enemy ; but he is now my friend. I re- 
lieved him in his distress, which excited his gratitude and. 
affection. 

AN ASSERTER 

32. Is a part of speech used to assert existence^ 



16 ETYMOLOGY. 

or a fact in relation to an object : * or, 

33. It is one which can be so used with a name or substi- 
tute, as to constitute, with that, an assertion concerning 
the object denoted by it ; as, 

John walks. Maria reads. I am. The apple was 
eaten. 

AN INTRANSITIVE ASSETTER 

34. Represents the subject of remark as merely 
existing ; or as acting without affecting another 
object; as, 

I am. John walks. Water floras. Grass grows in 
the field. 

[Let the teacher be particular to describe the " subject 
of remark" as limited in the large Grammar] 

A TRANSITIVE ASSERTER 

35. Represents an action or fact of the sub- 
ject of remark, as extending to, and affecting 

some object; as, 

I love Henry. William caught a dove. Julia ate an 
apple. 

A RECEPTIVE ASSERTER 

36. Represents the subject of remark as receiv- 
ing the action or fact denoted by the asserter ; as, 

Henry is loved by me. The dove was caught by Wil- 
liam. The apple was eaten by Julia. 



* The word "fact," is used here, and throughout the 
book, to represent a thing as done, or that may be done. 
The distinctions, Intransitive, Transitive, and Receptive, 
are here given to assist the learner in marking the relations 
of Case, which he could not otherwise be made to under- 
stand. 



PARTS OF SrEECH DEFINED. 17 

AN ADNAME 
37. Is a word added to a name or its substitute, 
to describe the object denoted by it ; 

I. By showing its class, quality or kind; as, a country 
merchant ; sweet apples ; brass clocks. 

II. By showing its number or order ; as, one man ; two 
men ; the first man ; the second man. 

III. By showing how the object, as an object, merely, is 
to be regarded ; whether generally or particularly ; inter- 
rogatively or negatively ; as, this book ; any book ; Which 
book is mine ? JVo book is faultless. 

A MODIFIER 

3S. Is a part of speech used to modify the 
sense or sound of the whole sentence, or the clause 
of a sentence, in which it occurs ; as, 

John studies attentively at school. Julia progresses 
rapidly in her music lessons. Seth did not see James at 
church. Harriet is certainly my friend. Julia is not dead. 

A RELATIVE 

39. Is used to show the relation of a fact or 
event to an object, or of one object to another ; as, 

John walked through the brook. Allen Briggs, of 
Rome, is my friend. William gave the book to Maria. 
" Our youth is like the dream of the hunter on the hill of 
heath." 

A CONNECTIVE 

40. Is used to connect words or sentences with 
each other ; as, 

John and Helen are happy, because they are wise and 
good. Seth went to church, but Henry remained at home. 

AN INTERROGATIVE 

4i. Is a word used to interrogate ; as, 

2* 



18 



We should detest drunkenness, yet pity its victims. 
Why? John will visit his father in New York. When? 

[It expresses, of itself, what must otherwise he ex- 
pressed by several different parts of speech combined.] 

A REPLIER 

42. Is a word or phrase used to reply to a fore- 
going question or remark ; as, 

Should we detest villany of every kind ? Yes. Can 
man annul his obligations to his fellows ? No — or Cer- 
tainly not. 

[It expresses, of itself, what would otherwise require 
the use of several different parts of speech combined] 

AN EXCLAMATION 

43. Is a word or phrase used separately from a 
sentence for expressing emotion ; as, 

O Israel ! Thou hast destroyed thyself. Alas ! I 
fear for life. 

Lesson I. 

[Let the pupil distinguish the different parts of speech 
in the following lessons.] 

Cain killed his brother. Abel was killed by Cain. 
Maria loves her cousin. My friends left their carriage, 
and walked towards the cataract. They met Seth and 
Henrietta, returning from the mountain. We should be 
just to all men. Man should love and obey his Creator. 

Lesson II. 

William will visit his aged mother. When ? I saw 
Maria and her uncle. Where ? James : Grammar is a 
useful science. You should be quiet in church. My 
aunt resides in Boston. I visited her and her nearest 
neighbor in the forenoon of yesterday. Did James goto 
school ? No. 

Lesson III. 

Clarissa and Julius went early to Sunday School. They 
had learned their lessons well. Washington died at Mount 



19 



Vernon, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. Jesus wept 
With Mary and her sister. He raised their brother [Laza- 
rus] from the grave. O glorious hope of endless rest ! 

[Let the teacher require the pupil to give various sen- 
tences, and distinguish the parts of speech in them] 

PARSING 

44. Is describing the nature, use, and powers 
of words, and, when united in a sentence, their 
relation to, and dependence and influence on, 
each other. 



HASHES. 

45. A name is a term used to distinguish an 
object or idea that may be considered separately 
or alone ; as, man, woman, truth. 

46. Names are of four sorts, — General, Particular, Col- 
lective and Assertive. 

A GENERAL NAME 

47. Is general in its application to objects : as, 
man, mountain, city. 

48. It represents a class or kind of objects — and is ap- 
plicable to all objects of the kind that it denotes. 

A PARTICULAR. NAME 

49. Is used to particularize one object of a 
kind ; as, William, Andes, London. 

50. It is a name given to one object of a certain kind, to 
distinguish that from all others of the same kind. 

A COLLECTIVE NAME 

51. Is used to denote a collection of distinct 



20 sex. 

objects that may be considered separately, and in- 
dependently of fixed locality or situation; as, 
army, school* 

AN ASSERTIVE NAME 

52. Partakes the natures of an asserter and a 
name; as, 

Jack was whipped for stealing fruit. To confess our 
faults, is better than to deny them. 

53. [" Stealing" in this example, sustains to the relative 
for, the same relation that would be sustained by the name 
theft, as, he was whipped for theft ; and, at the same time, 
it sustains to the name fruit, the same relation that would 
be sustained by the asserter steals ; as, Jack steals fruit] 

54. Particular and Collective names become 
general by being pluralized ; as, 

The Adamses, the Livingstons, the Pitts, the armies, 
the schools. 

55. A Particular becomes general when used, 
not to particularize an object, but to show the 
character of one already denoted by another 
word ; as, 

Webster is the Demosthenes of America. Clay is the 
Cicero of the age. 

SEX 

56. Is the medium of distinction between males 
and females. 

NAMES AND SUBSTITUTES 

' 57. Are called Masculine, Feminine, Common 

* These are a kind ? of general names that require 
rules which are not applicable to names distinguished 
merely as general; as the man was well; the family 
were well. [See the large Grammar.] 



21 



and Neuter, to distinguish, with respect to Sex, 
the objects which they denote. 

58. These distinctions are not applied to collective 
names. 

MASCULINE 

59. Names and substitutes denote males ; as, 
man, Henri/, lion, he, him t 



60. Names and substitutes denote females ; as, 
woman, Julia, lioness, she, her. 



61. Names and substitutes are terms common 
to both sexes ; as, parent, children, I, we. 

NEUTER 

62. Names and substitutes are terms repre- 
senting objects without sex; as, tree, fold, apple. 

63 Masculine and feminine terms are often applied to 
neutral objects; as, the sloop John Adams ; the steamship 
Victoria. 

64. Neuter terms are often applied to male and female 
objects ; as, John is the staff oi his aged parents. Helen 
is their solace and joy. 

65. The English language has three modes of distinction 
between males and females. The first is by a difference 
in the termination of words, as in the following examples : 

Males. Females. Males. Females. 

Actor Actress Instructer Instructress 

Abbot Abbess Jew Jewess 

66. The second mode is by a change of the entire word ; 



Males. 


Females. 


Males. 


Fern 


Bachelor 


Maid 


Lad 


Lass 


Beau 


Belle 


Lord 


Lady 



22 



67. The third mode is hy prefixing some term as an 
adname to the word denoting the object; as, 

Males. Females. 

A man servant, A maid servant, 

A he goat, A she goat, 

A male child, A female child. 

68. 0= In superscribing a letter to a married woman, 
use her husband's christian name, rather than her own; 
as, Mrs. George Clinton. 

[See this explained in the large Grammar.] 

Lesson IV. 

[Let the pupil tell which of these names are general, 
whicb are particular, and which are collective : and also 
which terms are masculine — feminine — common — neu- 
ter.] 

Mr. John Jackson, Seth Williams, Jr. men, rivers, girls, 
Harriet, Mrs. Hannah More, Gen. John Lawrence, army, 
tea-party, school, book, rose, aunt, uncle, cousin, sister, 
brother, friend, huntress, hunter, ship, boat, regiment, dove, 
bird, flock, drove, associate, traveller, sovereign, king, 
queen, president, chairman, secretary, child, family, pro- 
tectress, tutor, Miss Julia Winslow, truth, friendship, love, 
hatred, modesty, benevolence, Helen Johnson. 

PERSON 

69. Is the medium of distinction between the 
speaker, the object addressed or spoken to, and the 
object spoken of. 

70. Names have two persons, the Second and the Third. 
Substitutes have three ; the First, Second, and the Third. 

THE FIRST PERSON 

71. Denotes, by one word, the speaker, as such, 
or the speaker and those associated with him ; as, 

J am well. We must go home taking our books with us. 



NUMBERS. 23 

THE SECOND PERSON 

72. Denotes the object addressed or spoken to ; 
as, 

James, learn your lesson. Boys, learn your lessons. 

THE THIRD PERSON 

73. Denotes, not the speaker, as such, but some 
other object spoken of; as, 

Henry found his books in the school-house. 

NUMBER 

74. Is the representation of objects with respect 
to singleness and plurality — as one, or more than 
one. 

75. Names and substitutes have two forms for distin- 
guishing objects with respect to number ; the Singular, 
and the Plural. 

THE SINGULAR FORM 

76. Denotes a single object, or but one; as, 
man, book, he, it. 

THE PLURAL FORM 

77. Denotes a plurality of objects, or more than 
one, as men, boohs, we, they. 

REGULAR NAMES 

78. Have s, or es, added to the singular form to 
make the plural ; as, 

Singular ; book, lady, church : Plural ; books, ladies, 
church- es. 

IRREGULAR NAMES 

79. Have not s or es, added to the singular form 



24 



to make the plural ; but have it made in some 
other way ; as, 

Singular; man, child, foot : Plural; men child-ren, feet. 

DEFECTIVE NAMES 

80. Have not appropriate forms to distinguish 
singularity and plurality ; as, dee?-, wealth, shears* 

81. They are of several classes. First, those which are 
used only in the singular form, and singular sense, as, 

Wheat Silver Haughtiness Humility 

Pitch Pride Contempt Pity 

82. Second ; those which are used only in the plural form 
and plural sense ; as, 

Annals Calends Ides Shears 

Archives Drawers Lees Tidings. 

83. Third ; those that are in the plural form, yet are 
always to be used in the singular sense ; as, 

News Pneumatics 

Billiards Politics • 

84. Fourth ; those which, in the singular form, may be 
used in the singular or plural sense ; as, 

Deer Fish Salmon 

Sheep Cannon Haddock 

85. Fifth ; those which, in the plural form, may be used 
in the plural or singular sense ; as, 

Wages, Means, Amends, Gallows, Bellows. 

86. A name of this class is to be regarded as singular in 
sense when meaning but one fact, item, or event; as, 

John lost his money in Buffalo ; and by this means, he 

* All abstract names, or names of qualities, considered 
apart from the objects to which they necessarily belong, are 
Defective names ; as white, or whiteness, darkness, red- 
ness. 



25 



was prevented from proceeding farther west. Seth's wages 
is twenty-five dollars per month. 

87. It is to be regarded as plural in sense when meaning 
more than one fact, item, or event ; as, 

Henry's health failed. His pecuniary disappointments 
multiplied. His store and mills were burned ; and by these 
means he became insolvent. The wages of the three 
brothers were different, according to their respective ages. 

DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR NAMES. 
83 Defective names must be distinguished by observa- 
tion on the meaning and consequent proper application of 
the words. 

89. Irregular names are to be distinguished chiefly by 
reference to tables or lists, where their plurals are given.* 

90. Names ending in fe, are irregular, and are pluralized 
by exchanging/ for v, and adding s; as knife, knives, life, 
hues. 

91. Names ending in If are irregular, and are made plu- 
ral by exchanging/ for v, and adding es ; as, half, hakes ; 
shel/, shelves. 

92. Names ending with the syllable cis, sis, or is im- 
mediately preceded by the sound of s, are irregular, and are 
pluralized by exchanging the i, of the last syllable, for e; 
as gla-cis, gla-ces ; the-sis, the-ses ; ax-is, ax-es. 

TABLE 

93. Of irregular names, not included in the foregoing 
distinctions. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Man Men Ox Oxen 

Woman Women Goose Geese 

Child Children Tooth Teeth 

Loaf Loaves Foot Feet 

Leaf Leaves Louse Lice 

* These two distinctive traits of words, should be marked 
in our dictionaries, in which each word, with its peculiar- 
ities, is treated of separately. There, names that are defec- 
tive, should be so distinguished, and those which are irreg- 
ular should have their plurals given. [See the large Gram.] 

3 



26 



Sheaf Sheaves [For Beau, Staff, Phenomenon, 

Thief Thieves Seraph, and others, sometimes 

Beef Beeves* pluralized irregularly, see reg- 

ular names.] 

REGULAR NAMES. 

94. Names not included in the foregoing representa- 
tions, as defective or irregular, are regular in the forma- 
tion of their plurals, which should be made from the sin- 
gular form, as follows. 

95. Those ending ins, x, z, sh, or ch sounded as in cheer, 
are pluralized by adding es ; as, 

Singular; gas, kiss, tax, buz z,\ lash, church: Plural; 
gas-es, kiss-^s, tax-es, &c. 

96. Those ending in other consonants, including ch, 
sounded like k, are made plural by the addition of s ; as, 

Singular; cob, critic, lad, chief, ruff, snuff, staff,i log, 
trough, brick, anarch, spoonful, portal, palm, nation, 
scrip, orator, hat, curfew: Plural; cobs, ciitics, lads, 
chiefs, ruffs, &c. 

97. Those ending in y, preceded by another vowel in 
the same syllable, are pluralized by adding s; as, day, 
valley ; days, valleys. 

* Meaning, not the flesh of cattle, but the cattle them- 
selves, designed for slaughter. 

t As a toy for children. 

+ The word staff, becomes, pluralized, staves, except when 
meaning a military commandant's associate officers. Phe- 
nomenon, automaton, beau, seraph, cherub, index, radius, 
are sometimes seen pluralized according to the grammars 
of the languages from which they are derived ; as phenom- 
ena, autometa, beaux, seraph-tm, chcrub-im, indices, ra- 
dii, strata. To a person not acquainted with those lan- 
guages, this manner of pluralizing cannot give any idea of 
plurality. The closing sound of thesis and similar words, 
renders necessary, or, at least, convenient, the mode allow- 
ed for pluralizing them. [See the large Gram.] 



27 



98. Those ending in y, not preceded by another vowel 
in the same syllable, are pluralized by exchanging the y 
for i, and adding es ; as fly, Hies, ally, allies, lady, ladies.* 
A name ending in i, is pluralized by adding es : as, alkali, 
alkalies. 

99. Those ending in o sounded like oo (as in too) or im- 
mediately preceded by another vowel, are made plural by 
adding s ; as, 

Singular ; two, canto, nuncio, Scipio, bamboo, tattoo : 
Plural ; twos, cantos, nuncios, Scipios, bamboos, tattoos. 

100. Those ending in o neither sounded like oo, nor pre- 
ceded by another vowel, are pluralized by adding es ; as, 
hero, echo — heroes, echoes. 

101. [Particular names are exceptions to this rule ; they 
being pluralized by adding s only ; as Cato, Pedro — the 
Catos, the Pedros.] 

102. Those ending with other vowels, are made plural 
by adding s : as, 

Singular ; zebra, creature, palace, gnu, beau, bureau .* 
Plural ; zebras, creatures, palaces, gnus, beaus, bureaus. 
See note +, page 26. [We have no irregular names ending 
in vowels.] 

103. Those formed by a union with a modifier or a rel- 
ative and another name, have the sign of plurality affixed 
to the first name in the combination ; as, the commanders- 
in-chief, the brothers-in-law. t 



* Penny is pluralized in this manner when pieces of 
money, valued at a penny each, are meant ; but is changed 
to pence when the amount is meant; as, twelve pence, is a 
shilling. Any word denoting, merely, an amount of money, 
though plural in form, is singular in sense ; as ten dollars 
is enough for that book. Three shillings was paid to John 
for his knife. 

t The word aid-de-camp is regularly pluralized as one 
word in English ; as, aid-de-camps, notwithstanding its 
French Etymology, and the primary meaning in that lan- 
guage, of the individual parts composing the word. 



2S 



PARTICULAR NAMES 



104. \\ZT All particular names are regular in the forma- 
tion of their plurals, to render them general names, and 
follow, according to their endings, the foregoing rules ; as 
the Cassars, the Livingstons, the Clintons. 

105. When we would address two or more persons of 
one sur-name, by the sur-name, the sign of plurality should 
be subjoined to the name, rather than the term of address; 
[such as Mr., Mrs., Miss, and the like,] as, 

The Mr. Huntingtons, the Mrs. Livingstons, the Miss 
Clintons: Yet, 

106. When, for the sake of greater particularity, we 
would use the Christian name of each person, we should 
join the sign of plurality to the term of address in the same 
manner as though the names were wholly different ; as, 

Messrs. Henry and Gurdon Huntington ; Mrss. (Mis- 
tresses) Abigail and Frances Pierson ; Misses Amelia and 
Juliana Clinton. [See the large Gram.] 

ALPHAEETICALS AND NUMERALS, 

107. Used instead of the letters constituting their respec- 
tive names, are pluralized by adding an apostrophe (') and 
annexing the letter s; as the a's, the 6's, the l's, the 2s, 
the 20's. 

108. [S, h and x are exceptions ; they being pluralized 
by adding es, preceded by a hyphen ; as, the s-es, &c] 

109. The names of these letters and figures, when 
spelled in full, are pluralized by annexing an apostrophe, 
and adding s, as the he's, the ce's, the double-u's, the 
two's. 

110. [S, h and x are exceptions; they being pluralized 
by adding es, preceded by a hyphen ; as, the es-es, &c] 

CASE 

111. Is the medium of distinction .used to de- 
scribe, by the relation of a name or substitute to 
other words, the relation of an object or idea to 
some fact or event, or of one object to another. 

112. Names and substitutes are used in four simple cases ; 



29 



Subjective, Possessive, Objective, and the Independent; 
and the Twofold case, which is a representation, by one 
word, of two simple cases. 

THE SUBJECTIVE CASE 

113. Of a word, represents the person or thing 
denoted by it, as the subject of remark, and, 

With its dependent asserter, it constitutes a sentence ; 
as John writes elegantly ; Henry, go home ; James can 
walk. [See the large Grammar.] 

THE POSSESSIVE CASE 

114. Of a word, represents the person or thing 
denoted by it, as possessing or having something; 
as, John's book. His friend. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE 

115. Of a word, represents the person or thing 
denoted by it, as the object of an action or fact 
expressed by a transitive asserter ; or the object of 
relation expressed by a relative ; as, 

John bought a house in JYew York for his brother. I 
ate an ajjple in the store* 

THE INDEPENDENT CASE 

116. Of a word, represents it as free from con- 
structive dependence on the words of a sentence. 

117. It does not, of itself, like any other case, represent 
the object denoted by it as having any connection with 
the fact which the sentence, to which it may refer, ex- 
presses ; as, . 

* It may express the object of a fact denoted by a re- 
ceptive asserter when this object and the subject of remark 
ar^ both given ; as, John was paid a dollar. 

3* 



30 



John : where is your brother ? Henry : I have written 
a letter. " Israel! thou hast destroyed thyself." 

THE TWOFOLD CASE 

118. Of a word sustains a two-fold relation to 
the sentence ; as, 

John took his book, and left William's. Henry's fruit 
was taken, but mine was left. James bought whatever 
provisions were necessary for him. I took what he had 
left. 

[119. In these examples, the word William's represents 
the man as the possessor of the books ; thereby sustaining 
the relation of the possessive case. It is used after the as- 
serte'r left to denote the object of the action or fact ex- 
pressed by the asserter ; thereby sustaining to it, the rela- 
tion of the objective ; both facts showing it, as it is said to 
be, in the twofold case. The word mine, it is seen, shows 
the two relations of the possessive and the subjective case ; 
provisions shows the two relations of the objective and 
the subjective ; and what sustains, to the sentence, the 
relation oi' two objectives — the twofold objective case ] 

THE DECLENSION 

120. Of a name, is changing the word to make 
its possessive form, and to represent objects with 
respect to number. 

THE POSSESSIVE FORM. 

121. Of a name not ending with the sound of s 
or z, should be made by annexing an apostrophe 
(') and adding the letter s; as, John's book. 
Maria's friend. 

122. When the name ends with the sound of either 
s or z, (whatever letter may represent the sound,) 
the possessive form should be made by adding an 
apostrophe; as, 



31 



Goodness' sake. Conscience* sake. Jabez' unwilling- 
ness. Felix' reply. Barnes' expositor. Mrs. Remans' 
works.* 

123. When, however, the use of the possessive 
form, would be both hard of expression and un- 
pleasant to the ear, the possessorship should be 
represented by the relative of; as, 

Instead of saying a rose' fragrance, or a rose's fragrance, 
we should say the fragrance of a rose.t 

124. EXAMPLES OF THE DECLENSION OF GEN- 
ERAL NAMES. 

Singular. Plural. 

Subj. form, A man, Subj. form, Men, 

Poss. form, A man's [books,] Pes?, form, Men's [books,] 
Obj. form, A man, Obj. form, Men, 

Indep. form, A man, Indep. form, Men. 

* Usage has been various in relation to the posses- 
sive form of names ending the sound of s, or z. Three 
forms have been used ; as, Xerxes-his indiscretion — 
Xerxes' s indiscretion ; and Xerxes' indiscretion. The first 
form has become obsolete. The only disagreement, now, 
is concerning the other two. With respect to these, usage 
is still unsettled ; though inclining, genei ally, to the last 
form. In this state of affairs, all but " Grammar" writers 
should be treated with great lenity ; for, where all are in 
disagreement, who shall blame his neighbor for dissent ? 
Grammar writers, however, who set themselves as guides ; 
who assume to teach what they do not understand ; who 
direct one way, tolerate the other, (its opposite,) and 
practice both! should expect, and receive, the full weight 
of public censure. Where popular usage vibrates, principle 
and analogy should give the preponderance. [See. this mut- 
ter discussed in the large Grammar.] 

t See the large Grammar, in which all the distinctions 
of case are fully illustrated— Plates I and II. 



32 



Singular. Plural. 

Subj. form, A senator, Subj. form, Senators, 

Pos. form, A senator's [duties] Poss. form, Senators' [duties,] 
Obj. form, A senator, Obj. form, Senators, 

Indep. form, A senator, Indep. form, Senators. 



125. 



DECLENSION OF PARTICULAR NAMES. 



Singular. Plural. [Here they become 

general] 

Subj. Maria, Subj. The Marias, 

Poss. Maria's [books,] Poss. The Marias' [books,] 

Obj. Maria, Obj. The Marias, 

Indep. Maria, Indep. The Marias. 

Singular. Plural. 

Subj. Felix, Subj. The Felixes, 

Poss. Felix' [property,] Poss. The Felixes' [property] 

Obj. Felix, ' Obj. The Felixes, 

Indep. Felix, Indep. The Felixes. 

126. From this view of the declension, it is seen that 
the only change of form, which ease requires in names, i9 
the annexing of the sign which distinguishes the posses- 
sive form from the other. 

127. Both forms of a name may be used in the twofold 
case ; as, 

I will aid whatever person shall need my assistance. I 
took Henry's book and left John's. 

128. The Possessive form shouldbe used in the twofold 
case wherever it can represent, clearly, both the posses- 
sor and the thing possessed ; as, 

John took his ticket, and left Harriet's, Julia's, Helen's 
and Mary's, — not, John took his ticket, and left Harriet's 
ticket, Julia's ticket, Helen's ticket and Mary's ticket. 

Lesso<v IV.* 

John resides near the house of Seth in the city of New 

* Let the teacher explain the characteristics of Appen- 
dant Phrases, as given in connection with Plate II, in the 



SUBSTITUTES. 33 

York on Manhatten island. Seth : Maria loves her brother 
for his intelligence and virtue. William seeks enjoyment 
in activity and usefulness. He is happy in the pursuit 
and attainment of wisdom and goodness. 

Lesson V. 
Our youth * is like the dream of the hunter on the hill 
of heath. He sleeps in the mild beams of the sun : he 
awakes amidst the raging storm. Red lightnings fly 
around him : Trees shake their heads to the wind. He 
looks back with joy to the hour of the sun, and the plea- 
sant dreams of his rest. — Gssian. 

Lesson VI. 
Heaven endows, with blessings, whatever man accepts 
the proffered bliss. Whatever man shall adhere, strictly, to 
principles of honesty, will find his reward within himself. 
John's lessons and mine are easy. Time flies rapidly. I 
sold my library, and purchased John's and William's. 



A SUBSTITUTE 

129. Is a word substituted for a name, phrase, 
or sentence ; as, John lost my book. 

130. Substitutes are of four kinds; Simple, Adname, 
Interrogative, and Connective. 

large Grammar. The pupil should be required to distin- 
guish the parts of speech, as such ; and parse the names, 
giving all their traits in the order in which they have been 
described. Let this be observed in relation to o f her parts 
of speech, as fast as he finds their traits unfolded in his pro- 
gress through the Grammar. 

* Let the pupil understand that the word youth is a 
neuter name when denoting the period of life between 
childhood and manhood ; and a common name, when used 
to represent persons living in that period. 



34 SUBSTITUTES. 



A SIMPLE SUBSTITUTE 



131. Is a word which simply stands in the 
place of a name, phrase, or sentence, and which 
always acts the part of a substitute ; as, 

James was sick; but he is now well ; John was thrown 
from his horse upon the pavement ; and he was severely 
injured by it. 

132. Simple Substitutes are /, thou, he, she and it, and 
their variations with respect to number and case : 

133. Myself, thyself, himself, herself, and itself, called 
emphatic substitutes, from their being used to # give 
emphasis, and their variations with respect to number ; 
and 

134. None, which is never varied, in form, and may be 
used in the singular or plural sense. 

THE DECLENSION OF A SIMPLE SUBSTITUTE 

135. Is changing its form for the representation of 
objects with respect to number and case. Emphatic sub- 
stitutes do not vary their forms on account of case. 

136. The forms are named according to the cases in 
which they should be used. 

Examples. 
137. COMMON SUBSTITUTES. 
FIRST PERSON. 

Singular form. Plural form. 

Subj. form, I, Subj. form, We, 

Poss. form, My or mine,* Poss. form. Our, 

Obj. form, Me, Obj. form. Up, 

Indep. form, Me, Indep. form, We, 

Twofold form, Mine Twofold form, Ours. 

* The use of mine in the simple possessive case, is con- 
fined to the grave or " scriptural " style. 



SUBSTITUTES. 



35 



138. COMMON SUBSTITUTES. 



Singular form. 
Subj. Thou, 1 

Poss. Thy or thine, | 
Obj. Thee, y 

Indep. Thou, 
Twofold, thine, J 



SECOND PERSON. 

Plural form. 
Subj. Ye* or you, 
Poss. Your, 
Obj. You. 
Indep. You, 
Twofold, Yours. 



139. N. B. — You, like defective names of the fifth class, 
is used in the singular sense as well as the plural ; though 
it requires, even when used in the singular sense, the 
same form of the asserler that it requires when used in 
the plural. [See the large Grammar.] 



140. THIRD 


PERSON. 


Masculine Substitutes. 


Common Substitutes* 


Sing. form. 
Subj. He, 
Poss. His, 
Obj. Him, 
Indep. Him, 
Twoiold, His. 


Plur. form. 
Subj. They, 
Poss. Their, 
Obj. Them, 
Indep. They, 
Twofold, Theirs. 


141. Fern. Subs. 


Com. Subs. 


Sing. form. 


Plur. form. 


Subj. She, 
Poss. Her, 
Obj. Her, 
Indep. She, 
Twofold, Hers. 


Subj. They, 
Poss. Their, 
Obj. Them, 
Indep. Thev, 
Twofold, Theirs. 


142. Neuter Subs. 


Com. Subs. 


Sing. form. 


Plur. form. 


Subj. It, 
Poss. Its, 
Obj. It, 

Twofold, } notused - 


Subj. They, 
Poss. Their, 
Obj. Them, 
Indep. They, 
Twofold, Theirs. 



' Confined to the grave style. 



36 SUBSTITUTES. 



AN EMPHATIC 

143. Simple substitute should be used when we would 
represent, as the object of action or fact, or of relation, the 
same person or thing that is represented by another word, 
as the subject of remark ; as, 

John ruined himself, (not him,) by intemperance. I 
reasoned with myself, (not me.) 



144. May be used in combination with a name or sub- 
stitute in the possessive form, to constitute it emphatic ; as, 
'Twas God's own grace that saved my soul 
From sinking in despair. 
14?, Its most common and important use, is, to make, 
with g -eater stiength, the twofold form and case of the 
simple substitute, by being joined to the simple possessive 
form ; as, 

Man's mercies, from God's hand proceed ; 
His miseries, from his own. — H. More. 
" Oh give me tears for others' woes ; 
But firmness 'midst my own."* 

146. A simple substitute or a name, when used ex- 
clamatorily or interrogatively, without an asserter or re- 
lative ; or when used as a replier, is in the independent 
case, whatever the form ; as, 

/doubtful, cheer ss ? /afraid? 

/, hapless wrei. \ man — a slave! 

Though offspring of the good and brave ! 

147. A simple substitute should be preferred to a name, 
phrase, or sentence, wherever it is capable of expressing 
the idea to be communicated ; as, Jane was well when / 
saw her. 

148. A simple substitute should be used in the twofold 
form and case, wherever it can represent clearly both the 

possessor and the thing possessed ; as, 

* Own thus joined to another word, constitutes, with 
that, a name-combination, or substitute-combination t in 
the possessive form. 



SUBSTITUTES. 37 



I took John's book and left mine. John took my car- 
riage, and left his. My friends added much to my enjoy- 
ment, without diminishing their own. 



EMPHATIC SIMPLE SUBSTITUTES DECLINED. 

Common Substitutes. 

Singular form. Plural form. 

149. First Person, Myself, Ourselves. 

150. Second Person Thyself, [grave style] > Yourselves 

" " Yoursell. ) 

THIRD PERSON. 

151. Masculine, Himself, ^ Themselves. 

152. Feminine, Herself, > [All plural substitutes are 

153. Neuter, Itself. } common.] 

AN ADNAME SUBSTITUTE 

154. Expresses the sense of an adname, and 
has the place of a substitute. 

155. It is an adname that becomes a substitute by the 
proper omission of the name of the thing, to which, as an 
adname, it refers ; as, 

Two men will be in the field. One will be taken and 
the other left. Henry took this book, and left that. John 
bought five peaches, and sold three. 

156. The combinations of adname substitutes, 
each other, and one another, are called reciprocal 
substitutes, from their denoting reciprocation ; as, 

John and Henry respect each other. They use one 
anolhet^s books. 

DECLENSION OF ADNAME SUBSTITUTES. 

157. One, other and another, when used as Adname 
substitutes, are thus declined. 
4 



38 SUBSTITUTES. 

Singular form. Pluralform. 

Subj. form, One, Subj. form, Ones, 

Poss. form, One's [books] Poss. form, Ones' [books] 

Obj. form, One, Obj. form, Ones. 

Subj. form, Other, Subj. form, Others, 

Poss. form, Other's [books] Poss. form, Others' [books] 

Obj. form, Other, Obj. form, Others. 

Subj. form, Another, ^ 

Poss. form. Another's [books] > The plural form is wanting. 

Obj. form, Another. ) 

158. An adname substitute should be used wherever it 
can express clearly the sense of an adname and a name ; as, 

William bought five books and sold two — (not two 
books.) He bought his history for five dollars, and his 
geography for three — (not three dollars.) 

AN INTERROGATIVE SUBSTITUTE 

159. Acts the parts of an Interrogative and a 
Substitute ; as, 

" Who can show us any good ?" James ; ichat is your 
wish ? 

160. Who, who se, which and what, are the only words 
used as interrogative substitutes. 

WHO SHOULD BE USED 

161. 1. When we would, by a general question, refer 
to a rational object that we expect to be designated, in the 
answer, by a particular name ; as, 

Who gave the book to William ? Henrietta. Who 
Were with her ? Jane and Julia. 

162. II. When, in a pathetic appeal, we would heighten 
the effect of conviction by interrogating as though refer- 
ring to a rational object, yet, without expecting an an- 
swer ; as, 

Who can resist the Almighty ? Who can escape from 
his presence or his power ? 






SUBSTITUTES. 



WHAT 



163. Should be used when we interrogate respecting 
objects, qualities or characters, (merely as such ;) as, 

What did you meet ? A man and a carriage. What 
will consummate a man's destruction? Intemperance. 
What is Henry ? An attentive student and a virtuous 
man. 

WHICH 

164. Should be used when we discriminate between 
objects, or classes ot" objects, (merely as such ;) as, 

Which do you prefer ; Vice, with disgrace and misery ; 
or Virtue, with honor and felicity ? Which is the direct 
route to Philadelphia ? 

165. The Possessive form, whose, should be used in the 
twofold case, wherever it can clearly include in its mean- 
ing the possessor and the thing possessed ; as, 

William : I shall borrow Seth's boat. Whose will you 
take ? 

A CONNECTIVE SUBSTITUTE 
166. Acts the parts of a connective and a sw&- 
stitute ; as, 

John, who was sick, is now well. The tree, that thou 
cursedst, is dead. James ate the apple ivhich I had given 
to him. 

I- KTJohn was sick — One sentence. John is now well — 
Another sentence. John was sick — One sentence. He 
is now well — Another. Here it is seen, that the word he, 
just supplies the place of the name John. It does no more 
than that name would do. It is a simple substitute. 

II. John was sick. He is now well. Here are two 
separate sentences, expressing two distinct facts. John 
was sick, but he is now well. Here the word he acts the 
part of a simple substitute ; and the word but, (a simple 
connective) unites the two sentences, thereby forming 
them into one. 

III. John, who was sick, is now well. Here the word 



40 SUBSTITUTES. 

who, stands in the place of the name John, as fully as the 
word he, in the foregoing examples. Who, therefore, is 
a substitute. It connects the sentences, even more closely 
than the word but, as before used. It is, therefore a con- 
nective. From both facts, it is seen to be, what it is nam- 
ed, a connective and a substitute — a connective substitute. 

IV. fO^To determine which substitute, in a sentence de- 
scribing two facts, is connective, express tbc facts by 
separate sentences, and see which term is missing. Thus, 

V. John, who was sick, is now well. John was sick. 
John is now well. Here it is perceived that the word who 
is missing. You may know, then, that who is the con- 
nective substitute. 

VI. The tree that thou cursedst, is dead. The tree is 
dead. Thou cursedst the tree. Here it is perceived that 
the word that is excluded — is missing. Therefore, you 
know, the word that to be the connective substitute. 

167. Who, which, that, what, whoever, whosoever, 
whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever, and 
their variations with respect to Case, are the only words 
used as connective substitutes. 

168. Who may be substituted only for the names of ra- 
tional objects, and those represented as such ; as, 

John, who was absent, has returned. " Fair Hope, who 
points to distant years ! " 

169. Wliich, as a connective substitute, may represent 
a phrase or a sentence ; but may stand for the names only 
of irrational objects, and those represented as such ; as, 

John fell from the roof of the house, by which he was 
much injured. Henry studies the book which I bought 
for him. The first objects which I met, were two hunts- 
men who were pursuing a deer. 

170. Tliat should never be used in the objective case to 
denote the object of relation ; as, William is the friend that 
I purchased the books for, [for whom I purchased the 
books.] Otherwise, 

171. I» That should be used in preference to either who 
or which, where reference is had to rational and irrational 
objects, conjointly or separately considered ; as, 



SUBSTITUTES. 41 



The persons, carriage and horses that went off the pre- 
cipice, were found below. Neither John nor his dog that 
went out yesterday morning returned till midnight. 

172. II. When occurring after, and referring to, an inter- 
rogative substitute ; as, 

Who, that has any sense of moral obligation, can stoop 
to profane swearing ? 

173. IILWhen standing for a name which has, depending 
on it, an interrogative adname, the adname same, or very, 
or an adname in the superlative form,* or an emphatic 
modifier; as, 

What man, that loves his neighbor, or venerates his 
God, can take advantage of his neighbor's distress ? Wil- 
liam is the same man that I met in the morning. Seth is 
the most attentive student that I have in school. Henry 
has just the character that I thought he had. 

174. IV. When a connective substitute is to be used in the 
subjective case before an asserter that has, also, before it, 
a simple substitute, in the same case, denoting the same 
object; as, 

Richard is the man that I thought he was. 

175. V. When a connective substitute is to be used in the 
objective case before an asserter that has, also, a simple 
substitute in the objective case after it, denoting the same 
object ; as, 

Robert is just the person for talent that I had understood 
him to be. 

176. A connective substitute should be used wherever 
it can be, consistently with clearness; as, 

He whom we should obey, is eternal. The good which 
I prefer to all other, is practical wisdom. 

THE DECLENSION 

177. Of Connective and Interrogative substitutes, is 
changing their forms according to their representation of 
case. They are not varied on any other account. 

* The superlative form of an adname is that which re- 
presents the object as exceeding all others in the quality 
referred to ; as, John is the best scholar. 

4* 



42 



SUBSTITUTES. 



ITS. 

Subjective form. 
Who, 
Whoever, 
Whosoever, 
What, 
Whatever, 
Whatsoever, 
Which, 
Whichever, 
Whichsoever, 



DECLEIVSIOX. 

Possessive form. 
Whose, 
Whose ver, 
Whosesoever, 
Whose, 
Whosever, 
Whosesoever, 
Whose, 
Whosever, 
Whosesoever, 



Objective form. 
Whom, 
Whomever, 
Whomsoever, 
What, 
Whatever, 
Whatsoever, 
Which, 
Whichever, 
Whichsoever. 



179. The words who, whom and which are not to be 
used in the twofold case ; though the others may be, and 
should be, wherever consistent with elegance and clear- 
ness. 

180. O 3 Remember that words in the twofold case, 
always sustain the same relations, that would be sustained 
by the words whose places they so elegantly supply. 

181. \JZT Remember that a connective substitute imme- 
diately preceded by than, and followed by the comparative 
form of an adname or modifier, is always either in the pos- 
sessive case (and that case is easily distinguished) or in 
the objective, depending on than, as a relative : but that, 
in all other circumstances, a connective substitute is in the 
same case, as the name or simple substitute for which it 
stands, would be, if used. [See in the large Grammar, 
rules for determining which substitutes are connective ; as 
well as their case, in all circumstances.] 



A SUBSTITUTE-PHRASE 

182. Is a combination of words 
some fact, and sustaining to the other 
sentence, the relation of name or subst 

To maintain a steady and unbroken jnim 
the shocks of the world, marks a great and 
Living temperately and frugally, promotes 
and happiness.* 

* To maintain, and living, are here used as assertive 
names. 



expressing 
parts of a 
itute ; as, 
/ amidst all 
noble spirit, 
both health 



SUBSTITUTES. 



43 



Lesson VII. 
" Two men will be in the field : one will be taken and 
tbe other, left. God despiseth the proud, but giveth grace 
to the humble. The wicked are overthrown, and are not; 
but the house of the righteous shall stand. The wicked 
are driven away in their wickedness ; but the righteous 
have hope in their death." 

Lesson VIII. 

Who is so blind in thought, that he expects happiness 
in any thing but duty 2* Who has an arm like God's ? 
Who can fight against him ? Whom can I find that will 
support me ? Whose arm will protect me ? Which is the 
way of life ? What can bring relief to the guilty mind ? 
" He that hath no rule over his own spirit, is like a city 
broken down and without walls. They who give to the 
poor shall not lack: but they that turn their eyes from 
suffering, shall have many a curse." 

Lesson IX. 

" Whoever is partner with a thief, hateth his own soul. 
Whoever mocketh the poor, reproacheth his Maker , and 
whoever is glad at their calamities, shall not go unpunish- 
ed. The Lord loveth whomsoever he correcteth ; as the 
father correcteth the son in whom he delighteth. The way 
of the wicked is an abomination to the Lord ; but he loveth 
whomsoever delights in righteousness.' 3 



ASSERTERS. 

1S3. An asserter is a part of speech used to 
assert, or to express existence or a fact in rela- 
tion to an object; as, 

* In parsing interrogative and connective substitutes, you 
should remember that they do not mark the distinctions of 



44 ASSERTERS. 



I am. John walks. Maria reads. The apple was 
eaten. 

184. Asserters are of two primary kinds— Principal 
and Auxiliary. Either of these, may be so used as to be- 
come a Substitute Asserter. 

A PRINCIPAL ASSERTER 

1S5. Is one which, of itself, expresses exist- 
ence or a fact in relation to an object ; as, 
I am at home. John walks. Maria reads. 

AN AUXILIARY ASSERTER 

186. Is one which does not, of itself, express 
existence or a fact, but is joined to a principal to 
assist in varying its meaning ; and forms, with 
that, but one asserter ; as, 

I have been at home. John can walk. Maria will read. 

A SUBSTITUTE ASSERTER 

187. Is a principal or an auxiliary expressing 
the sense of a full asserter, and, at the same time, 
acting the part of a substitute ; as, 

Though John cannot go to Buffalo, finish my business, 
and return in six days, yet Henry can. 

188. [Here it is seen that the substitute asserter can, 
not only represents all that the full asserter, can go, would 
have expressed, but also all that could have been ex- 
pressed by saying, " Can go to Buffalo, finish my business, 
and return in six days." 

sex, person, or number. Case is their only property, and 
in this (with the exception given in 181, page 42,) they 
always sustain the same relation that would be sustained 
by the terms for which they stand, if those terms were 
used. 



ASSERTERS. 45 



189. Principal asserters are distinguished as Intransitive, 
Transitive, and Receptive ; and as Regular, Irregular, 
and Defective. They are used in two peculiarities of 

form — the Continuative and the Completive. 

AN INTRANSITIVE ASSERTER 

190. Represents the subject of remark as merely 
existing ; or as acting without affecting another 
object; as, 

I am. John walks. Water flows. Grass grows in 
the field. 

[Let the teacher be particular to describe the " subject 
of remark" as limited in the large Grammar.] 

A TRANSITIVE ASSERTER 

191. Represents an action or fact of the sub- 
ject of remark, as extending to, and affecting 

some object ; as, 

I love Henry. William caught a dove. Julia ate an 
apple. 

A RECEPTIVE ASSERTER 

192. Represents the subject of remark as receiv- 
ing the action or fact denoted by the asserter; 

as, 

Henry is loved by me. The dove ivas caught by Wil- 
liam. The apple was eaten by Julia,* 

193. The attributes or properties of asserters, are Mode 
and Tense ; the divisions of each of which, are named from 
their chief or general traits, considered in connection with 
a name or simple substitute ; not from what other words 
may cause them to express. 

* See the large Grammar, in which these three distinc- 
tions arc given in a manner too plain to be mistaken. 



46 ASSERTERS. 



194. Is a medium of distinction including both 
the form of an asserter and the manner in which 
it is used for representing a fact or event without 
reference to time. 

195. Asserters are used in five modes — the Declara- 
tive, Inferential, Interrogative, Commanding, and the 
Unlimited. 

THE DECLARATIVE MODE 

196. Declares that the fact which the principal 
asserter denotes, has occurred, is occurring, or 
shall or icill occur ; as, 

James has written. He is writing. He will write* 

197. [This mode of the asserter makes full sense (an in- 
dependent remark) when taken only with its subjective 
word.] 

THE INFERENTIAL MODE 

198. Expresses, by inference, the idea of pos- 
sibility, liberty, power, will, necessity or obliga- 
tion in relation to the fact denoted by the princi- 
pal asserter ; as, 

James may have loriiten. He may write. He would 
write, if he could. He must write. He should write. 

199. [This mode makes full sense or an independent 
remark, when taken only with its subjective word : but 
it can not declare or represent that what the principal as- 
serter denotes, has occurred, is occurring, or shall or will 
occur.] 

* It declares that whatever the principal asserter repre- 
sents, has occurred, is occurring, or shall or will occur. 



asserterS. 47 

the interrogative mode 

200. Interrogates concerning the fact denoted 
by the 'principal asserter ; as, 

Has James written ? Is he writing ? Will he write ? 
May he write ? Can he write ? Should he write ? 

201. [This mode makes full sense when taken only with 
its subjective word : but it can not declare that the fact 
denoted by the principal asserter, has occurred, is occur- 
ring, or shall or will occur : nor can it give any ground 
for inferring any thing in relation to that fact. When 
taken with its subjective word, it can only interrogate or 
ask a question.} 

THE COMMANDING MODE 

202. Expresses a command concerning the fact 
denoted by the principal asserter ; as, 

James ; write. Henry ; study. Julia ; sing. Love 
your enemies.* 

203. [This mode makes full sense when taken only with 
its subjective word ; but it can not express what either of 
the foregoing modes, is, by its definition, represented as 
expressing] 

THE UNLIMITED MODE 

204. Is free from the limiting influence exert- 
ed on the other four modes ; thus,f 

I. It is not limited or influenced by the person of the 
subjective word on which it depends ; as, 

Declarative mode, I speak; thou speak-esf; he speaks 

*For the various uses to which these four modes may 
be applied, see the large Grammar. 

t Let the pupil remember that this mode is not named 
from what it expresses, but from its freedom from the re- 
straint exercised on other modes. [See the large Grammar.] 



48 



or speak-efft. Unlimited mode, I was invited to speak ; 
Thou wast invited to speak ; He was invited to speak. 

II. It is not limited or influenced by the form (numeri- 
cally considered) of the subjective word ; as, 

Declarative mode, He speaks or speak-eth ; They speak. 
Unlimited mode, He was invited to speak; They were 
invited to speak. 

III. It is not limited with respect to case ; as, while an 
asserter in any other mode, requires the name or substitute 
on which it depends to be in the subjective case ; one in this 
mode may depend on a word in either of the first three 
cases; as, 

/ was invited to speak ; [to speak depending on the 
word / in the subjective case.] James requested me to 
speak; [to speak depending on the me, in the objective 
case.] James was wearied by my attempting to speak; 
[to speak depending on my, in the possessive case.] 

IV. 0= While an asserter in any other mode, taken 
only with its subjective word, makes full sense, or an in- 
dependent remark, one in this mode never can; thus, 

V. James writes. James has written. James can write. 
Does James write ? Can James write ? James ; write. 
Either of these asserters makes full sense when taken 
only with the subjective word James. James learned to 
write. James was persuaded to write. I saw James 
writing. Here it is seen that to write and writing, taken 
only with the name James, would be nonsense ; as, James 
to write. James writing, [See the large Grammar.] 

205. Either the commanding or the unlimited 
mode may be used in an absolute sense, or without 
name or substitute on which to depend, when 
there is a general address or reference to a fact; 
as, 

" Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy." 

TENSE 

206. Is the form in which an asserter is used to 
represent a fact or event with respect to time. 



ASSERTERS. 49 



207. Asserters are used in seven tenses ; the Prior-past, 
the Indefinite-past, Prior-present, Present, Prior-future, 
Indefinite-future, and the Indefinite.* 

THE PRIOR-PAST TENSE 

208. Represents a past event as prior to an- 
other past event, or past time ; as, 

I had visited Helen before she left home. John had 
traveled two days when he overtook William. 

THE INDEFINITE-PAST TENSE 

209. Represents a past event as indefinitely 
past; as, 

Helen left home. John overtook William. Henry 
died in London. 

THE PRIOR-PRESENT TENSE 

210. Represents an event as having occurred 
prior to the present time, but in a period con- 
nected with the present ; as, 

Helen has left home this morning. " The Lord gave, 
and has taken away." Julius has returned from school. 

THE PRESENT TENSE 

211. Represents present time, or an event as 
occurring at the present time ; as, 

I am well. Julia is studying. Henry writes elegantly. 

THE PRIOR-FUTURE TENSE 

212. Represents a future event as prior to 
some other future event, or future time ; as, 

* All the tenses, except when otherwise particularly 
directed, are to be used, severally, to express such facts as 
correspond with their respective names and definitions. 
5 



50 ASSERTERS. 



Helen will have been absent two days when I shall 
meet her. John will have traveled several weeks before 
I shall overtake him. 

THE INDEFINITE-FUTURE TENSE 

213. Represents a future event as indefinitely 
future ; as, 

Helen icill leave home. John will travel. I shall over- 
take him. 

THE INDEFINITE TENSE 

214. Represents an event as indefinite with re- 
spect to time ; as, 

I would assist Henry if I could. John should pay his 
debts. James was requested to write a letter. I saw 
Julius sleeping in the shade. I shall see him sleeping. I 
saw the letter written. I shall see the letter written* 

OTHER DISTINCTIVE TRAITS OF ASSERTERS. 
THE PRIMARY FORM 

215. Of an asserter is that which is used with- 
out an auxiliary, in the Declarative mode and 
Present tense, depending on the substitute 1 ; 
as, I love, I walk, I speak, I write. 

A REGULAR ASSERTER 

216. Has its past tenses made by adding d to 
the primary form ending in e, and ed to the pri- 
mary not ending in e ; as, 

Primary form, I love. I walk. Past tenses, I had 

* To see the tenses more particularly explained, and ex- 
hibited in full contrast with each other, so that one can 
not be taken for another, see the large Grammar. 



ASSERTERS. 51 



lov-ed. I had walk-ed. I lov-ed. I wslk-ed. I have 
lov-ed. I have walk-ed. 

AN IRREGULAR ASSERTER 

217. Does not have its past tenses made by 
adding d or ed to the primary form; as, 

Primary form, I speak. I write. Past tenses, I had 
spoken. I had writ-ten. I spoke. I wrote. I have 
spoken. I have writ- fen. 

A DEFECTIVE ASSERTER 

218. Is a principal asserter that cannot pro- 
perly be used in all the different, modes and ten- 
ses ; as, 

John, beware of the allurements of vice. tc It is no 
more than justice, quoth the former.* 

THE SINGULAR FORM 

219. Of an asserter is that which pertains to a 
name or substitute of the third person and in the 
singular form ; as, 

The pupil thinks. He speaks. He writes. He runs. 

THE PLURAL FORM 

220. Of an asserter is that which pertains to 
a plural name or substitute ; as, 

The pupils think. They speak. They read. They 
write. They run.] 

* The learner will readily perceive what an awkward 
thought would be produced in a listener by hearing a per- 
son say, I had bewared, thou hadst bewared, he had be- 
wared ; or I had quothed, thou hadst quothed, he had 
quothed. 

t There is a difference only in a few particular places, 



52 ASSERTERS. 



THE COMPLETIVE FORM 

221. Of an asserter denotes the completion of 
the fact or event at the time referred to ; as, 

James wrote a letter. Henry met his brother. I saw 
the letter written. 

.THE COXTEVUATIVE FORM 

222. Of an asserter denotes the continuance of 
a fact or event at the time referred to ; as, 

I saw James writing a letter. Efforts are being made 
to extend the blessing of the temperance reform. The 
book is being printed. 

223. [r~p The following inflections are given as models 
for the formation of asserters in the various modes and 
tenses ; and should be regarded as rules. They embrace 
every variety ol form in application, that should be used. 

INFLECTION 

Of the Irregular Intransitive Asserter Am or Be. 

Declarative Mode. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1* I had been, 1 We had been, 

2 Thou hadst been,t 2 Ye or you had been, 

3 He, she or it had been. 3 They had been. 

as will be seen by reference to the following intlection of 
asserters. In the other places the singular and the plural 
subjective words have a common form of the asserter. 

* The pupil should remember that the figures 1,2 and 3, 
mean the First Person, the Second, and the Third, of the 
Substitutes. 

t In ordinary discourse you, with the plural form of the 
asserter, is to be used, in preference to thou, and the form 



ASSERTERS. 53 

Indefinite-past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 I was, 1 We were, 

2 Thou wast or wert,. 2 Ye or you were, 

3 He, &c, was,* 3 They were. 

Prior-present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 I have been, 1 We have been, 

2 Thou hast been, 2 Ye or you have been ? 

3 He hathf or has been, 3 They have been- 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 I am, 1 We are, 

2 Thou art, 2 Ye or you are, 

3 He is, 3 They are. 

Prior-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 I shall or will have 1 We shall or will have 
been, been, 

2 Thou shalt or wilt 2 Ye or you shall or will 
have been, have been, 

3 He shall or will have 3 They shall or will have 
been, been. 

which that requires after it. [See 13S— 139, page 35,} The 
" Friends," however, with admirable simplicity, use the 
grave style, in common conversation. For their benefit thou 
is given, in this work, in all the varieties of inflection. 

* As the feminine substitute she, and the neuter sub- 
stitute it, have, respectively, the same form of the asser- 
ter that the masculine substitute he, requires, the former 
two will not be repeated in the inflections. 

t Grave style. 
5* 



54 ASSERTERS. 

Indefinite-future Tense. 
Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 I shall or will be, 1 We shall or will be, 

2 Thou shalt or wilt 2 Ye or you shall or will 
be, be, 

3 He shall or will be, 3 They shall or will be, 

Interrogative Mode, 

Formed from the Declarative. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 Had I been ? 1 Had we been ? 

2 Hadst thou been? 2 Had ye or you been? 

3 Had he been ? 3 Had they been ? 

Indefinite-past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 Was I ? 1 Were we ? 

2 Wast or wert thou 1 2 Were ye or you ? 

3 Was he ? 3 Were they ? 

Prior-present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 Have I been ? 1 Have we been ? 

2 Hast thou been ? 2 Have ye or you been ? 

3 Hath he,* or has he 3 Have they been? 
been ? 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 Am I ? 1 Are we ? 

2 Art thou ? 2 Are ye or you? 

3 Is he ? 3 Are they ? 

* Grave style. 



ASSERTERS. 55 

Prior-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 Shall I, or will I have 1 Shall we, or will we 
been? have been ? 

2 Shalt thou, or wilt 2 Shall ye or you, or will 
thou have been ? ye or you have been ? 

3 Shall he, or will he 3 Shall they, or will they 
have been ? have been ? 

Indefinite-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 Shall 1, or will I be? 1 Shall we, or will we be? 

2 Shalt thou, or wilt 2 Shall ye or you, or will 
thou be ? ye or you be ? 

3 Shall he, or will he 3 Shall they, or will they 
be ? be ? 

Inferential Mode. 
fj^r* 224. In this mode, and the Interrogative 
formed from it, the only variation which the as- 
serter admits, is in the auxiliaries in their appli- 
cation to thou ; for, 

225. All words of the third person and singular form, 
and all plurals, have, in these modes, the same form of 
the asserter as the substitute /; so that, 

226. In inflecting an asserter depending on any of these 
varieties of subjective words, the pupil has only to give, 
with the subjective word, the forms which are attached 
to the substitute I, in the following inflections. 

Prior-past Tense. 
I might, could, would Thou mightst, couldst, 
or should have been.* wouldst, or shouldst 
have been. 

* Ought to have, is used as an auxiliary in the prior-past 
tense of this mode. 



56 ASSERTERS. 

Indefinite Tense. 
I might, could, would Thou mightst, couldst, 
or should be,* wouldst or shouldst be. 

Prior-present Tense. 
I may, can or must Thou mayst, canst, or 
have been, must have been. 

Present Tense. 
I may, can or must Thou mayst, canst or 
be, must be. 

Interrogative Mode, 

Formed from the Inferential. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Might, could, would or Mightst, couldst, wouldst 

should I have been ? or shouldst thou have 

been? 

Indefinite Tense. 

Might, could, would or Mightst, couldst, wouldst 

should I be ? or shouldst thou be ? 

Prior-present Tense. 
May, can or must I have Mayst, canst or must 
been ? thou have been ? 

Present Tense. 
May, can, or must I Mayst, canst or must 
be ? thou be ?t 

* Ought to is used as an auxiliary in the indefinite tense 
of this mode. 

t \£T From the foregoing inflections it is seen that 
the Interrogative mode is formed from the Declarative and 
the Inferential only by placing the first auxiliary before 



ASSERTERS. 



57 



Commanding Mode. 
Always in the Present Tense. 
Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 
Be thou, or do thou be. Be ye or you, or do ye or 
you be. 
227. In this mode, the singular and the plural form of 
the name or substitute, have the same form of the asser- 
ter — the common form. 

Unlimited Mode. 

228. This is used in two divisions, called the 
First and Second. 

The First Division 

229. Is so named from its having, in the Inde- 
finite tense", with the word to, the primary form, of 
all asserters except am or be (of which it takes be) 
and its requiring the primary form of the asserter 
have as its auxiliary; as, to love; to have loved. 

THE SECOND DIVISION 

230. Is so named only to distinguish its forms 
from those of the first : thus, 

Unlimited Mode — First Division. 
Indefinite Tense. 
Completive form, To be. 

Continuative form, [wanting.] 

Prior-past Tense. 
Completive form, To have been. 

Continuative form, [wanting.] 

the subjective word ; or by placing the principal there, 
when it has no auxiliary used. 



58 



ASSERTERS. 



Unlimited Mode — Second Division. 
Indefinite Tense. 
Simple Completive form, Been.* 

Simple Continuative form, Being. 

Prior-past Tense. 
Completive form, Having been, 

Continuative form, [wanting.] 

INFLECTION 

Of the Regular Transitive Asserter, Love. 
Declarative Mode. 
Prior-past Tense. 
I had loved,f Thou hadst loved. 

Indefinite-past Tense. 
I loved, or did love, Thou lovedst, or didst 
love. 

Prior-present Tense, 

I have loved, Thou hast loved, 

He hath;f or nas i0ve d. 

Present Tense. 

I love, or do love, Thou lovest, or dost love, 

He loveth,"j: or loves, or doth,j: or does love. 

* This word is not used except when preceded by the 
auxiliary have, or some of its variations. 

t Let the pupil remember that in all places in these in- 
flections, where the asserters are not given, the form is 
the same that is given with the substitute /. 

X Grave style. 



ASSERTERS. 



59 



Prior-future Tense. 
I shall or will have Thou shalt or wilt have 
loved, loved. 

Indefinite- future Tense. 
I shall or will love, Thou shalt or wilt love, 

Interrogative Mode, 

Formed from the Declarative. 

Prior-past Tense. 
Had I loved 1 Hadst thou loved 1 

Indefinite-past Tense. 
Loved* I, or did I love ? Lovedst thou, or didst 
thou love 1 

Prior-present Tense. 
Have I loved ? Hast thou loved ? 

Hath he,* or has he loved 1 

Present Tense. 
Love I,* or do 1 love 1 Lovest thou, or dost thou 
love? 
Loves he,* or doth,* or does he love ? 

Prior-future Tense. 
Shall I, or will I have Shalt thou, or wilt thou 
loved ? have loved? 

Indefinite-future Tense. 
Shall I, or will I love 1 Shalt thou, or wilt thou 
love ? 

* Grave style. 



60 ASSERTERS. 



Inferential. Mode. 

Prior-past Tense. 
I might, could, would or Thou mightst, couldst, 
or should have loved, wouldst or shouldst 
have loved. 

Indefinite Tense. 
I might, could, would Thou mightst, couldst, 
or should love, wouldst or shouldst 

love. 

Prior-present Tense. 
I may, can or must have Thou mayst, canst or 
loved, must have loved. 

Present Tense. 
I may, can or must love, Thou mayst, canst or 
must love, 

Interrogative Mode, 

Formed from the Inferential. 

Prior-past Tense. 
Might, could, would or Mightst, couldst, wouldst 
should I have loved ? or shouldst thou have 
loved 1 

Indefinite Tense. 
Might, could, would or Mightst, couldst, wouldst 
should I love 1 or shouldst thou loved? 

Prior-present Tense. 
May, can or must I have Mayst, canst or must 
loved 1 thou have loved ? 



ASSERTERS. 61 

Present Tense. 
May, can or must I Mayst, canst or must 
love ? thou love 1 

Commanding Mode. 
Present Tense. 
Love thou, or do thou Love ye or you. 
love. 

Unlimited Mode — First Division. 
Indefinite Tense. 
Completive form, To love, 

Continuative form, To be loving. 

Prior-past Tense. 
Completive form, To have loved, 

Continuative form, To have been loving. 

Unlimited Mode — Second Division. 
Indefinite Tense. 
Simple Completive form, Loved, [receptive,] 
Simple Continuative form, Loving. 

Prior-past Tense. 
Completive form, Having loved, 

Continuative form, Having been loving. 

RECEPTIVE ASSERTERS 

231. Are formed from Transitive. 

232. A transitive asserter becomes receptive in 
the simple completive form of the indefinite tense 
of the unlimited mode, second division, [as above.] 

233. Receptive asserters are inflected by being 

C 



62 ASSERTERS. 

united with the Intransitive asserter am, or be, as 
an auxiliary, through all its varieties of form ; as 
in the following : 

Inflection of the Receptive Asserter, Loved. 

Declarative Mode. 

Prior-past Tense. 

I had been loved, Thou hadst been loved ? 

Indefinite-past Tense. 
I was loved, We were loved, 

Thou wast loved, Ye or you were loved, 

He was loved. They were loved. 

Prior-present Tense. 
I have been loved, Thou hast been loved, 

He hath* or has been loved. 

Present Tense. 
I am loved, We are loved, 

Thou art loved, Ye or you are loved, 

He is loved. They are loved. 

Prior-future Tense. 
I shall or will have been Thou shalt or wiltjhave 
loved, been loved. 

Indefinite-future Tense. 
I shall or will be loved, Thou shalt or] wilt be 
loved. 

* Grave style. 



ASSERTERS. Dd 

Interrogative Mode, 

Formed from the Declarative. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Had I been loved ? Hadst thou been loved ? 

Indefinite-past Tense. 
Was I loved ? Were we loved ? 

Wast thou loved ? Were ye or you loved ? 

Was he loved ? Were they loved ? 

Prior-present Tense. 

Have I been loved ? Hast thou been loved ? 

Has he been loved ? 

Present Tense. 
Am I loved ? Are we loved ? 

Art thou loved ? Are ye or you loved? 

Is he loved? Are they loved? 

Prior-future Tense. 
Shall I, Or will I have Shalt thou, or wilt thou 
been loved ? have been loved? 

Indefinite -future Tense. 
Shall I, or will I be Shalt thou, or wilt thou 
loved ? be loved ? 

Inferential Mode. 
Prior-past Tense. 
I might, could, would Thou mightst, couldst, 
or should have been wouldst or shouldst 
loved, have been loved, 

Indefinite Tense. 
I might, could, would Thou mightst, couldst, 
or should be loved, wouldst or shouldst 

be loved. 



64 ASBERTERS. 

Prior-present Tense. 
I may, can or must have Thou mayst, canst, or 
been loved, must have been loved. 

Present Tense. 
I may, can or must be Thou mayst, canst, or 
loved, must be loved. 

Interrogative Mode, 

Formed from the Inferential. 

Prior-past Tense. 
Might, could, would or Mightst, couldst, wouldst 
should I have been or shouldst thou have 
loved 1 been loved 1 

Indefinite Tense. 
Might, could, would or Mightst, couldst, wouldst 
should I be loved ? or shouldst thou be 

loved ? 

Prior-present Tense. 
May, can or must I Mayst, canst or must 
have been loved ? thou have been loved ? 

Present Tense. 
May, can or must I be Mayst, canst or must 
loved ? thou be loved ? 

Commanding Mode. 
Present Tense. 
Be thou, or do thou be Be ye or you loved, or 
loved, do ye or you be loved. 



ASSERTERS. 65 

Unlimited Mode — First Division. 
Indefinite Tense. 
Completive form, To be loved, 

Continuative form, [wanting.] 

Prior-past Tense. 
Completive form, To have been loved. 

Continuative form, [wanting.] 

Unlimited Mode — Second Division. 
Indefinite Tense. 
Completive form, Loved. 

Continuative form, Being loved. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Completive form, Having been loved, 

Continuative form, [wanting.] 

CONTINUATIVE FORM OF RECEPTIVE ASSERTERS. 

234. Receptive Asserters of the continuative 
form are made and inflected by the union of the 
continuative form, of the indefinite tense of the 
unlimited mode, with the asserter am, or be. 

235. The continuative form of receptive as- 
serters may be used only in the indefinite tense 
of the unlimited mode, second division, (as 
above,) the indefinite-past and the present of the 
declarative mode and the interrogative formed 
from the declarative. 

6* 



66 



ASSERTERS. 



INFLECTION 



Of the Receptive Asserter Built.* Contin- 
uative form. 

Declarative Mode. 
Indefinite-past Tense. 
The house was being The houses were being 
built. built. 

Present Tense. 
The house is being The houses are being 
built. built. 

Interrogative Mode, 

Formed from the Declarative. 

Indefinite-past Tense. 

Was the house being Were the houses being 

built 1 built ? 

Present Tense. 
Is the house being Are the houses 
built 1 built ? 

INFLECTION 

Of the Continualive form of Intransitive or 
Transitive Asserter s. 

236. The continuative form of a transitive as- 
serter or any intransitive one, except am or be, is 
inflected by annexing to am or be in its varia- 

* From the transitive asserter build. [See the large 
Grammar.] 



67 



tions, the simple continuative form, as exhibited 
in the third column of the tables which follow the 
Inflections: thus, 

Declarative Mode. 

Prior-past Tense. 

1 had been writing, Thou hadst been writing. 

Indefinite-past Tense. 
I was writing, Thou wast writing. 

O^ It may be inflected through all the modes 
and tenses. 

[nF 237. Receptive asserters may, according to their 
meaning, be formed by union with a relative, and inflected 
through the different modes and tenses ; as, 

I had been spoken to. I was spoken to. I have been 
spoken to. 

0= 238. Intransitive asserters may be inflected by the 
union of the simple completive form with am or he; as, 

The edifice is decayed. " How are the mighty fallen /"* 

[This should not be carried so far as to sacrifice elegance 
of diction.] 

O 3 239. All principal asserters, intransitive or transi- 
tive, have the simple completive form in all the prior 
tenses, whatever the mode. 

O 3 240. All except am or be have the primary form, 
(whatever the auxiliary) in all other tensest — except the 
indefinite of the unlimited mode, second division, 

tO 3 241. In the present tense of the declarative mode 
and the interrogative formed from it, the substitute thou 
requires st to be added to the primary form of its asserter, 
ending in e, and est to the primary not ending in e; as, 

* Denoting a state into which they have come and now 
remain. 

t Am or be, has be in these tenses. 



68 ASSERTERS. 

Thou lov-esf; Thou walk-esf ;* Thou forgetsf .* except 
when inconsistent with ease or elegance, in which case 
the primary form should be used preceded by dost. 

[O 3 242. In the indefinite-past tense, thou requires at 
to be added to the terminating d of regular asserters, and 
to the form given in the second column of irregular as- 
serters ; as, 

Thou lov-edsf ; Thou walk-edsf / Thou forgetsf: ex- 
cept when inconsistent with ease or elegance, hi which 
case the primary form should be used preceded by dost* 

243. To inflect irregular asserters, the pupil 
has only to observe their different forms in the 
following table, to follow the foregoing directions, 
and to inflect them, in other respects, like the 
regular asserters.t 

244. The asserters marked with the letter (R ) 
are inflected regularly, as well as irregularly. 

245. Those marked with the star (*) formerly 
had the regular, but now have only the irregular 
inflection. 

246. Of those marked with the dagger (t) the 
simple Completive form is not used without an 
auxiliary. 

247. To inflect an intransitive or a transitive 
asserter in the continuative form, join the simple 
cuntinuative as given in the following examples 
and tables, to the variations of am or be. 



* This is not applicable to am or be. See the forms of this 
as given on page 53. 

t The pupil should be exercised in the following table, 
till he can, without difficulty, inflect each asserter in it. 
Let the teacher name the asserter, and the learner give 
its inflections. 



ASSERTERS. 



G3 



Examples of Regular Asserters. 



Primary 


Indefinite past 


Simple Continua- Simple Comple- 


form. 


Tense. 


tive form. 


tive form. 


Love 


Lov-erf 


Lov-tng 


Lov-ed 


Hate 


Hat-erf 


Hat-mg 


Hat-erf 


Walk 


Walk-erf 


Walking 


Walk-erft 


Respect 


Respect-erf 


Respect-mg- 


Respect-eJ 


Esteem 


Esteem-erf 


Esteem-wig 


Esteem-erf 


Divide 


Divid-erf 


Divid-ing 


Divid-erf 


Assert 


Assert-erf 


Assert-ing 


Assert-erf 



Table of the Irregular Asserters of this 
Language. 



Primary 


Indefinite-past Simple Contin 


. Simple Compl. 


form. 


Ten3e. 


form. 


form. 


Abide 


abode 


abiding 


abodet 


Am 


was 


being 


beent 


Arise 


arose 


arising 


arisen 


Awake 


awoke 


awaking 


awakened 


C to bring 






Bear < forth of -bore, bare 


bearing 


borne,:j: born 


Bear to car?" 


y bore 


bearing 


borne 


Beat 


beat 


beating 


beaten, beat 


Begin 


began 


beginning 


begun 


Bend 


bent 


bending 


bent 


Bereave R 


bereft 


bereaving 


bereft 


Beseech 


besought 


beseeching 


besought 


Bid 


bid, bade 


bidding- 


bidden, bid 


Bind 


bound 


binding 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


biting 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bleeding 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blowing 


blown 


Break 


broke 


breaking 


broken 


Breed 


bred 


breeding 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


bringing 


brought 


Build 


built 


building 


built 



X Borne is used in the transitive asserter, and bom in 
the receptive. 



70 



ASSERTERS. 



Indefinite-past Simple Contin 
form, 



Burst 

Buy 

Become 

Behold 

Cast 

Catch 

Choose 



Tensei 
burst 
bought 
became 
beheld 
cast 
caught 
chose 



Cleave to adhere clave R 



bursting 

buying 

becoming 

beholding 

casting 

catching 

choosing 

cleaving 



cleft or clove cleaving 
clinging 
clothing 



Cleave to 

Cling clun 

Clothe R clothed 

Come came coming 

Cost cost costing 

Crow crew crowing 

Creep crept creeping 

Cut cut cutting 

Dare, to venture durst or dared daring 

Dare, to challenge, Regular 



Deal 

Dig* 

Do 

Draw 

Drive 

Drink 

Dwelt 

Dream R 

DropR 

Eat 

Fall 

Feed 

Feel 

Fight 

Find 

Flee 

Flin°: 

Fly 

Forget 

Forsake 

Freeze 

Forbear 



dealt 

dug 

did 

drew 

drove 

drank 

dwelt 

dreamt 

dropt 

ate 

fell 

fed 

felt 

fought 

found 

fled 

flung 

fiew 

forgot 

forsook 

froze 

forbore 



dealing 

digging 

doing 

drawing 

driving 

drinking 

dwelling 

dreaming 

dropping 

eating 

falling 

feeding 

feeling 

fighting 

finding 

fleeing 

flinging 

flying 

forgetting 

forsaking 

freezing 

forbearing 



. Simple Compl. 
form. 

burst 

bought 

become! 

beheld 

cast 

caught 

chosen 

cleavedt 

cleft, cloven 

clungt 

clad 

come 

costT 

crowedt 

creptf 

cut 

dared! 

dealt 

dug 

done 

drawn 

driven 

drank 

dweltt 

dreamt 

dropt 

eaten 

fallen 

led 

felt 

fought 

found 

fledt 

flung 

flownt 

forgotten 

forsaken 

frozen 

forborne 





ASSERTERS. 


7] 


Primary 


Indefinite- past 


; Simple Contin 


. Simple Compl. 


form. 


Tense. 


form. 


form. 


GildR 


gilt 


gilding 


gilt 


Get 


got 


getting 


got 


Gird R 


girt 


girding 


girt 


Give 


gave 


giving 


given 


Go 


went 


going 


gone 


Grave R 


graved 


graving 


graven 


Grind 


ground 


grinding 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


growing 


grown 


Have 


had 


having 


had 


Hang* 


hung 


hanging 


hung 


Hear 


heard 


hearing 


heard 


Hew 


hewed 


hewing 


hewn 


Hide 


hid 


hiding 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hitting 


hit 


Hold 


held 


holding 


held 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurting 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


keeping 


kept 


Knit* 


knit 


knitting 


knit 


Know 


knew 


knowing 


known 


Kneel 


knelt 


kneeling 


knelt 


Layt 


laid 


laying 


laid 


Lead 


led 


leading 


led 


Leave 


left 


leaving 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lending 


lent 


Let 


let 


letting 


let 


Lie, to lie down\ lay- 


lying 


lain 


Load R 


loaded 


loading 


laden 


Lose 


lost 


losing 


lost 


Light 


lighted or lit 


lighting 


lighted or 


Make 


made 


making 


made 


Meet 


met 


meeting 


met 


MowR 


mowed 


mowing 


mown 


Mean 


meant 


meaning 


meantt 


Pay 


paid 


paying 


paid 


Put 


put 


putting 


put 


Read 


read 


reading 


read 


Rend 


rent 


rending 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


ridding 


rid 




\ Transitive. 


§ Intransitive. 



72 



ASSERTERS. 



Primary 


Indefinite-past 


Simple Contin 


. Simple Compl. 


form. 


Tense. 


form. 


form. 


Ride 


rode 


riding 


rode 


Ring 


rang or rung 


ringing 


rung 


Rise 


rose 


rising 


risen; 


RiveR 


rive'd 


riving - 


riven 


Run 


run 


running 


run 


Saw R 


sawed 


sawing 


sawn 


Say 


said 


raying 


said 


See 


saw 


seeing 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


seeking 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


selling 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sending 


sent 


Sett 


set 


setting 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaking 


shaken, shook 


Shape 


shaped 


shaping 


shaped, shapen 


Shave R 


shaved 


shaving 


shaven 


Shear 


sheared 


shearing 


shorne 


Shed 


shed 


shedding 


shed 


Shine 


shone 


shining 


shone* 


Show 


showed 


showing 


shown 


S:~ee 


shod 


shoeing 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shooting 


shot 


Shrink 


shrunk shrank shrinking: 


shrunk 


Shred 


shred 


shredding 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shutting 


shut 


Sing 


sung, sang 


singing 


sung 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sinking 


sunk 


Sit§ 


sat 


sitting 


satt 


Slay 


slew 


slaying 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


sleeping 


sleptt 


Slide 


slid 


sliding 


slid, slidden 


Sling 


slung 


slinging 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slinking 


slunk 


Slit 


slit 


slitting 


slit 


Smite 


smote 


smiting 


smitten 


Sow 


sowed 


sowing 


sown 


Speak 


spoke, spake 


speaking 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


speeding 


spedt 


Spend 


spent 


spending 


spent 




X Transitive. 


§ Intransitive. 





ASSERTERS. 


73 


Primary 


Indefinite-past 


Simple Contir 


i. Simple Compl. 


form. 


Tense. 


form. 


form. 


Spill R 


spilt 


spilling 


spilt 


Spin 


spun 


spinning 


spun 


Spit 


spit 


spitting 


spit 


Split 


split 


splitting 


split 


Spread 


spread 


spreading 


spread 


Spring 


sprung,spranj 


£ springing 


sprung 


Stand 


stood 


standing 


stoodt 


Steal 


stole 


stealing 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


sticking 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stinging 


stung 


Stink 


stunk 


stinking 


stunkt 


Stride 


strode 


striding 


strode 1 


Strike 


struck 


striking 


struek 


String 


strung 


stringing 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striving 


strove 


Strow 


strowed 


strowing 


strown 


Sweat 


sweat 


sweating 


sweat 


Swear 


swore 


swearing 


sworn 


Swell R 


swelled 


swelling 


swollen 


Swim 


swam, swum 


i swimming 


swumt 


Swing 


swung 


swinging 


swung 


Take 


took 


taking 


taken 


Teach 


taught 


teaching 


taught 


Tear 


tore 


tearing 


torn 


Tell 


told 


telling 


told 


Think 


thought 


thinking 


thoughtt 


Thrive R 


throve 


thriving 


throvet 


Throw 


threw 


thro wing- 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrusting 


thrust 


Tread 


trod! 


treading 


trodden 


Wear 


wore 


wearing 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


weaving- 


woven 


Wet 


wet 


wetting 


wet 


Weep 


wept 


weeping 


weptt 


Win 


won 


winning 


won 


Wind 


wound 


winding 


wound 


Work R 


wrought 


working 


wrought 


Wring 


wrung 


wringing 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 


writing 


written 



I Trode sometimes used in the grave style. 
7 



'* ASSERTERS. 

List of Defective Asserters. 

Trow, Quoth, Wot, Beware, Wist. 

USE OF DEFECTIVE ASSERTERS. 

249. Beware may be used, without change in the prin- 
cipal asserter, in the indefinite-future tense of the Declar- 
ative mode, in the indefinite tense and the present, of the 
Inferential mode,* in the Commanding mode, and the in- 
definite tense of the Unlimited mode, First Division. 

250. It should never be' used in the continuative form. 

251. Quoth may be used, without change, in the in- 
definite-past tense of the Declarative mode, referring to 
a word of the third person. 

252. It should always precede its subjective word. 

253. The other defective asserters should never he 
used. 

Lesson X. 

My son ; be wise and make my heart glad ; that I may 
answer him that reproacheth me. A prudent man fore- 
seeth the evil and hideth himself; but the simple pass on 
and are punished. 

Lessox XI. 

The wicked flee when no man pursueth. When the 
righteous are in authority, the people rejoice : but when 
the wicked rule, the people mourn. Remove far from me 
vanity and lies. Give me neither poverty nor riches : 
lest I should be poor and steal, and take the name of God 
in vain : or, least I should be full, and deny thee ; and say, 
" Who is the Lord ?" t 

Lesson XII. 

William persuaded John to accompany him to New Or- 

* This includes also the Interrogative mode, formed 
from these two. 

t Remove and give in this lesson, are in the Command- 
ing mode absolute, having no subjective words on which 
to depend for sense. 



ADNAMSS. 75 



leans. Seth was at home when I sent Richard to see 
him. I have been writing since I saw James at Hart- 
ford. He is engaged to return to New York in the 
month of May. Will Henry call on me while he shall 
be journeying South ? John ; hand my book to your bro- 
ther I had seen William several times before I met him 
in Buffalo. I will visit James to-morrow ; when I hope 
to see him engraving Washington's portrait. 

Lessojv XIII. 

Jane can write elegantly. Juliet excels her cousin in 
working lace. John should pay his debts early. Henry 
ought to accompany Maria to school. He might have 
gone earlier ; but he chose to delay, that he might see 
Zedekiah start for Philadelphia. Robert can not have ar- 
rived in Washington yet. He must, however, have left 
Philadelphia before this time. 



ABNAMES. 

254. An Adname is a word added to a name 
or its substitute, to describe the object denoted 
by it ; 

I. By showing its class, quality or kind ; as, a country 
merchant ; sweet apples ; brass clocks : 

II. By showing its number or order ; as, one man ; two 
men ; the first man ; the second man : 

III. By showing how the object, as an object, merely, 
is to be regarded ; whether generally or particularly ; in- 
terrogatively, exclamatorily, or negatively ; as, this book; 
any book ; which book is mine ? no book is faultless. 

255. Adnames are of seven kinds. Qualifying, Speci- 
fying, Interrogative, Exclamatory, Negative, Assertive, 
and Modifying. 



76 ADNAMES. 

256. Each of these (whatever its subdivision) is to be 
used to express an idea corresponding with its name and 
definition. 

A QUALIFYING ADNAME 

257. Shows the quality, condition, or class of 
the object to which it refers ; as, 

A good man ; a sweet apple ; John is happy ; a wood- 
en wheel. 

258. Most qualifying adnames are used in four forms : 
the Simple, Comparative, Superlative, and Diminutive. 
They are also called Regular, Irregular, and Defective. 

THE SIMPLE FORM 

259. Of a qualifying adname, shows the rank 
or quality of one object without reference to that 
of another ; as, 

A good man ; a wise man ; a sweet apple. 

THE COMPARATIVE FORM 

260. Represents the rank or quality of one ob- 
ject as compared with that of another ; as, 

A better man ; a wis-er man ; a sweet-er apple. 

THE SUPERLATIVE FORM 

261. Represents an object as exceeding all 
others in the rank or quality referred to; as, 

The best man ; the wis-esf man ; the sweet-es* apple. 

THE DIMINUTIVE FORM 

262. Of an adname or combination of ad- 
names, represents, without the idea of the direct 
comparison of objects, a diminution from the 



ADNAMES. 



77 



state or quality which the simple form denotes ; 
as, 

Simple form ; red, blue, strong. Diminutive form, red- 
dish, bluish, somewhat strong. 

THE DECLEJVSIOJY OF ADNAME9 

263. Is varying their forms to represent different de- 
grees of the rank or quality of the objects to which they 
refer. 

A REGULAR ADNAME 

264. Has its Comparative form made by the 
addition of r, or er, to the Simple form ; and 
its Superlative, by adding st y or est; as, 

Simple ; wise, great. Comparative ; wis-er, great-er. 
Superlative ; wis-es£, great-es?. 

AN IRREGULAR ADNAME 

265. Has its Comparative form and its Super- 
lative, made, either by associating with the simple 
form, the words more and most; or by a change 
of the entire words ; as, 

Simple; elegant, good. Comparative; more elegant, 
better. Superlative ; most elegant, best. 

A DEFECTIVE ADNAME 

266. Represents, in the simple form, the extent 
of sense which the adname is capable of ex- 
pressing; (and, of course, is not declinable;) as, 

Golden, woollen, round, square, boundless, infinite, 
pecuniary, pennyless, friendless. 

267. All adnames of two syllables, that end in y, may 

7* 



78 



be declined regularly by exchanging y for i, and adding 
er and est ; as, 

Simple form ; holy, happy. Comparative; holier, hap- 
pier. Superlative ; holiest, happiest. 

268. All, except little, that end in le with the e not 
sounded, by adding r and st ; as, 

Simple form ; simple, humble, gentle. Comparative ; 
simpler, humbler, gentler. Superlative ; simplest, hum- 
blest, gentlest — and 

269. All of one syllable, except those mentioned as ir- 
regular, and those whose sound would be unpleasant. 

270. All others that are declinable, are to be declined 
irregularly. 

271. Those which may be declined regularly, may also 
have the irregular declension ; as, 

Wise, wiser, or more wise ; wisest, or most wise ; hap- 
py, happier, or wore happy : happiest or most happy. 



% t 


rZ. DECLENSION FOUR 


FORMS. 


Diminutive 


Simple Comparative 


Superlative 


form. 


form. form. 


form. 


Whitish 


white whiter 


whitest 


Bluish 


blue bluer 


bluest 


Yellowish 


yellow* yellower 


yellowest. 


273. 


EXAMPLES OF REGULAR 


ADNAMES. 


Pimple form 


Comparative form. 


Superlative form. 


Able 


abler 


ablest 


Bright 


brighter 


brightest 


Happy 


happier 


happiest 



* Yellow, severe, and pleasant may be declined regu- 
larly. 



79 



EXAMPLES OF IRREGULAR ADNAMES. 

[They are of two classes.] 

274. First ; those which are declined by having more 
and most, associated with them ; as, 

Simple form. Comparative form. Superlative form. 

Acid more acid most acid 

Awful more awful most awful 

Blithsome more blithsome most blithsome 

275. Second ; those which are declined by a change of 



entire words 






Simple form. 


Comparative form. 


Superlative form. 


Bad 


worse 


worst 


Good 


better 


best 


Little 


less 


least 


Equal* 


superior 


supreme, or chief! 


Equal 


inferior 


least 


276. 


EXAMPLES OF DEFECTIVE NAMES. 


Brazen 


Omnipotent 


Absent 


Round 


Omnipresent 


Wooden 


Infinite 


Perfect 


Medical 


Boundless 


Present 


Golden 



277. The word somewhat may be prefixed to the sim- 
ple form of a qualifying adname to express, without com- 
parison, a diminution from the sense denoted by the sim- 
ple form ; as, 

Simple form ; studious, careful ; Diminutive form ; 
somewhat studious : somewhat careful. 



* Equal denotes not a quality, but rank with respect 
to quality, and supposes a comparison even in the Simple 
form ; while the other two forms give a different repre- 
sentation with respect to the same rank or quality. 

t These two terms are not given except in showing the 
grade of officers or courts. 



80 ADNAMES. 



278. The word less is prefixed to the simple form to 
express a comparative diminution ; and least to give the 
superlative sense ; as, 

Simple form; studious, careful: Comparative form of 
the combination ; less studious ; less careful : Superlative ; 
least studious ; least careful. 

279. The Comparative form, should be used in compar- 
ing two objects; as, John is the tall-er person of the two. 

280. The Superlative form should be used in reference 
to three or more objects; as, James is tall-est of the 
three. 

281. Double comparatives and superlatives, (such as 
more happier, most happiest, chioi-est, and the like,) 
should never be used. 

282. Adnames are distinguished as Primary and Se- 
condary. 

A PRIMARY 

283. Adname makes sense in reference only 
to the name or substitute on which it depends; 
as, a good man; a sweet apple.* 

A SECONDARY 

284. Adname qualifies the sense expressed by 
a primary, and through that, extends its reference 
to the object to which that refers ; as, a truly 
good man ; a very sweet apple. 

285. [Any adname is Primary which makes sense with- 
out another adname's coming between that and the word 
on which it depends.] 



* Adnames, preceding others, do not thereby necessa- 
rily become secondaries — those only being secondaries 
which qualify or limit the sense of the ones which they 
precede; thus, Adam Clarke was an industrious, perse- 
vering, learned, wise, good, and useful, man. Here are 
sevenprimary adnames, belonging to the name man. 



81 



286. Secondaries may be declined in combination with 
primaries, by associating with them, more and most • as, 

Simple form of the combination ; truly good. Compar- 
ative ; more truly good. Superlative ; most truly good. 

287. Secondary adnames are of three classes; First, 
Second, and Third; named according to their nearness to, 
or distance from, the primary. Thus, 



1} 



Name. 



8 £ Blue 

a 

<D O 

>> Deep blue 

a 

o 

I iv. 

= ^ ) 

Remarkably deep blue j5 > Name. 



Very remarkably deep blue Z > Name 



^ 1 

o >Na 

^ ) 
III. 

o >Na 

5 J 

IV. 

!}' 

V. 



82 



ADNAMES. 



288. Q~r In the foregoing illustration, it is seen that 
the primary adname blue is attached to the name cloth, 
to show the quality, [color] of the object denoted by that 
name ; and that the other terms are attached to the name 
cloth, through the medium of blue: they being, in degree, 
like the links of a chain, dependent on each other ; yet 
all dependent on blue, and with that, on the name cloth. 

289. O* As an adname is a word added, attached, or 
joined, to a name, to show the quality of the thing de- 
noted by it; and, as all these terms are added to the name 
cloth, for that purpose, and that only ; all of them must be 
adnames. 

290. A Primary adname that changes its form in be- 
coming a secondary adname or a modifier, should not be 
used in the primary form, as a secondary adname ; as, 

I saw a great many folks at the fair. I bought a good 
many apples. [ I saw many, or very many folks. I 
bought many or very many apples.] 

291. Names are often used as adnames; as, 

An oak chest ; a silver spoon ; James is many* years* 
older than Henry; Mary is live* years* older than Julia; 
Harriet is more-than* five* years* older than Mary ; the 
wall is ten* feet* high. 

SPECIFYING ADNAMES 

292 Specify the number or order of things, or 
(without reference to their qualities,) how they 
are to be considered. 

293. They are of five classes — Numeral, Ordinal, Dis- 
tributive, Definite, and Indefinite. 

A NUMERAL SPECIFYING ADNAME 

294. Shows the exact number of objects ; as, 
Two men : ten men. 



* Secondary adnames. 



ADNAMES. 



AN ORDINAL SPECIFYING ADNAME 

295. Shows the order, (with respect to num- 
ber,) in which objects are to be considered or 
taken ; as, the first man ; the tenth man. 

296. Where a Numeral and an Ordinal specifying ad- 
name are to be used together, the Ordinal should precede 
the Numeral in the sentence, and act as a secondary ad- 
name ; as, William read the first three verses of the 
hymn.* 

A DISTRIBUTIVE SPECIFYING ADNAME 

297. Denotes that the objects referred to are 
to be regarded separately or singly ; as, Each, 
man; every man. 

298. The Distributives are each, every, either, and 
neither. Each and every mean, respectively, both, or all. 
Either means one or the other, yet referring equally to 
the objects. JYeither as an adname or substitute, means 
not either. 

A DEFINITE SPECIFYING ADNAME 

299. Is used to mark more definitely a partic- 
ular object or class or collection of objects; as, 

This man, [Howard] was the friend of the poor. 

300. The Principal adnames of this class are this and 
that ; exchanged, when referring to plurals, for these and 
those ; former, latter, which, said, aforesaid, afore-men- 
tioned, the, the same, and Particular names, used as ad- 



* As the verses necessarily succeed each other, there 
can be but one first verse : and to say, sing the three first 
would, consequently, be very absurd. The ordinal is also 
to be used in particularizing which (in relation to number) 
is meant ; as, the fifth verse ; page twenty-fourth. The 
word last, may be used as an ordinal ; — thus ; the last 
two verses : the last day. 



84 ADNAMES. 

names ; as, Oneida county ; Oregon territory ; Paris 
fashions. Other words may be used as Definite specify- 
ing adnames, which can be known by the sense. 

THE 

Contrasted with this and that, these and those, should 
be used 

301. When we would refer to objects mentioned in a 
foregoing remark, yet without discriminating between 
them ; as, 

I met a man in the stage-coach yesterday. I think that 
John is the man. " And Nathan said to David, thou art 
the man :•* 

302. When we would refer to an object to be particu- 
larly described by the adnarne and a connective substi- 
tute ; as, 

James ate the apple which I had bought. William is 
the man who assisted me : [not that man who.] 

303. When we would characterize an object as eminent, 
and as peculiarly or exclusively so; as, 

Intemperance is the scourge of the world. Christianity 
is the science of human duty and human happiness. 

this and THAT, 

304. Or their plurals, these and those, should be used, 
when, without reference to a prior remark, or the aid of 
a connective substitute, we would distinguish some par- 
ticular object or class of objects ; as, 

James will read these rules ; and will, I think, remem- 
ber this one. 

that and THOSE 

305. Should be used as adnune substitutes, in prefer- 
ence to this and these when we would describe certain 
objects of one kind, class, or character; as, 

" That which a mad so\veth,will he also reap." Those 
who teach others, should not err, themselves. 

* Referring to the person characterized by a foregoing 
narrative. 



85 



this and THESE 

306. As adnames or substitutes, should be used in refer- 
ence to objects near us, or last mentioned ; that and those, 
to objects more distant, or first mentioned; as, 

John left two books in another room, and placed these 
here upon my desk. He told me to give those to Henry, 
and keep these. 

307. This and that may refer to single objects or facts; 
these and those, to more than one, or a plurality of objects 
or facts. 

AN INDEFINITE SPECIFYING ADNAME 

308. Denotes that the objects to which it re- 
fers, are to be considered or taken indefinitely 
or generally ; as, 

Some man ; any man; all men; a man; an apple. 

309. The principal indefinite specifying adnames are ; 
a, an, one (when not referring particularly to number,) 
some, other, another, any, all, such, several, little (when 
referring to quantity, not size,) much, many, enough, suf- 
ficient, few, whole, whatever, whatsoever, and whichever. 

310. Of these, some, little, few, several, much, and 
many, are declinable. 



311. 


Declension of Indefinite 


Specifying 






Adnames. 




Simple 


form. 


Comparative form. 


Simple form. 


Some 




more 


most 


Some 




less 


least 


Little 




less 


least 


Few 




fewer or less 


fewest or least 


Several 


1 


more 


most 


Much 




more 


most 


Many 




more 


most 



312. A may be used only before a word beginning with 
a consonant sound ; as, A hundred ; a house ; a univer- 
sity. 

313. An may be used only before a word beginning 

8 



80 ADNAMES. 

with a vowel sound ; as, An apple ; an under-ground 
room. 

314. One, other, and another, when used as Adname 
substitutes, may be declined like names. [See page 38.] 

315. AN INTERROGATIVE ADNAME 

Is prefixed to a name to express interrogation; 
as, 

Which apple is sour ? What fruit do you prefer ? 
[ Which and what are the only words of this class.] 

316. AN EXCLAMATORY ADNAME 

Is prefixed to a name to make the sense of 
the phrase or sentence exclamatory ; as, 

What a painful truth tbat was! What a villainSNed 
is ! What a wretch ! [ What is the only word of this 
kind.] 

317. A NEGATIVE ADNAME 

Is added to a name only to exert a negative 
influence on its meaning; as, 

No vicious man can ever be happy. [No is the only 
word of this kind.] 

AN ASSERTIVE ADNAME 

318. Partakes the natures of an asserter and 
an aclname ; as, 

A roaring cataract; a shrivelled form; a blooming 
rose ; a charming landscape. 

319. [This, like an asserter, represents a fact in relation 
to an object; and, like an adname, uses that fact to charac- 
terize or describe the object referred to.] 

A MODIFYIHG ADNAME 

320. Acts the part of a modifier and an ad- 
name; as, 

I held my hand open : 1 rubbed the silver bright. 



ADNAMES. 87 



Lesson XIV. 

Horace purchased five very large apples ; and gave 
them to Julia. 

Seth is more than five years old. My highway fence 
is a hundred and titty feet long. Julia's father is a very 
remarkably good agriculturist. 

Hiram is somewhat careless with respect to his personal 
appearance. The soil of the southern part of the country 
is of a reddish hue. Seth gave me much fruit ; but Wil- 
liam gave me more. Giles lent me more than twenty 
dollars. I lost less than five dollars by trading with the 
stranger * 

Lesson XV. 

The period is short in which man must prepare him- 
self for the duties of active life. We should, there- 
tore, never waste a moment of time in idleness ; or in 
such amusement as would unfit us for the performance of 
our parts in the great theatre of life. 

The upright man secures the respect and esteem of the 
good, and the veneration of the vile who stand in awe of 
his virtues. 

Lesson XVI. 

Manly habits, without tedious or dull formality, should 
characterize the young. Open and candid deportment, 
and vivacity without levity of mind, should be among the 
characteristics of middle-aged psrsons ; and cheerfulness 
and serenity of mind, should gild the mild radiance of life's 
decline. 

* More than, and less than, as used in this lesson 
are, secondary adnames, qualifying the sense expressed 
by their respective primaries, twenty and five, and be- 
longing with them to the terms to which they be- 
long. They are used as secondaries when they refer to 
the qualities or quantities of things, without having than 
act the part of a connective. When the combination more 
than, or less than, acts the part of an adname, it must im- 
mediately precede the term to which it refers ; and the 
two words of the combination must stand together. 



S8 MODIFIERS. 

MODIFIERS. 

321. A Modifier is a part of speech used to 
modify the sense or sound of the sentence or 
clause of the sentence in which it occurs; as, 

James speaks fluently in debate. John was not at home 
when I called yesterday. Seth writes elegantly when he 
tries to write well. God said " let there be light." 

THE DECLENSION OF MODIFIERS 

322. Is changing their forms for a different representa- 
tion of the facts or events to which they refer. 

323. Declinable modifiers and combinations of (hem, may 
be used in four forms; the Simple, Comparative, Superla- 
tive and Diminutive. 

THE SIMPLE FORM 

324. Of a modifier, shows the time or manner 
of one fact or event without reference to that of 
another ; as, 

James speaks fluently. George visits us often. 

THE COMPARATIVE FORM 

325. Represents the time and manner of one 
fact or event, as compared with that of another ; as, 

H jnry speaks more fluently than James. Seth visits us 
ofttn-er than George does. 

THE SUPERLATIVE FORM 

326. Represents one fact or event as exceeding 
all others in the time or manner described ; as, 

John speaks most fluently. Edward visits us often-est. 



MODIFIERS. 



THE DIMINUTIVE FORM 



89 



327. Of a combination of modifiers, represents 
the time or manner of an event or fact as existing 
in a less degree than the simple form expresses ; as, 

James walked somewhat carelessly around the cage of 
the leopard. 

328. DECLENSION OF MODIFIERS. 



Simple form. 


Comp. 


form. 


Sup. form. 


Soon 


sooner 




soonest 


Often, oft 


oftener 




often est 


Fast 


faster 




fastest 


Far 


farther 




farthest 


Well* 


better 




best 


111* 


worse 




worst 


Swiftly 


more swiftly 


most swiftly 


Industriously 


less industriously 


least industri 



329. Double Comparatives and Superlatives [such as 
more oftener, most oftenest,'] should never be used. 

330. Modifiers are of two kinds ; Primary and Secondary. 

A PRIMARY MODIFIER 

331. Modifies, of itself, the meaning or sound 
of the sentence or clause in which it occurs ; as, 

John behaves well. He writes elegantly. There is 
more happiness than misery in life. 

A SECONDARY MODIFIER 

332. Is prefixed to a primary, to exert, 
through that, its modifying influence on the sen- 
tence in which it occurs ; as, 

* Well and ill have, respectively, the same form as 
modifiers, that they have as adnames. 

8* 



90 MODIFIERS. 

John behaves very well. He writes remarkably 
elegant. 

333. Names, without preceding relatives, or dependence 
on asserters, may be used as modifiers, to show the time, 
place, manner, proportion, tendency or direction, or extent 
of a fact or event ; as, 

John studied many hours alone. He went home. He was 
traveling east when I met him. The enemy returned to 
the charge four times. I walked twenty miles.* 

334. A modifier or secondary adname derived from a 
primary adname, is made by adding ly to that primary ; 
as, primary adname, jjrudent ; modifier, or secondary 
adname, prudent-ly. 

335. A primary modifier ending in ly, loses its last syl- 
lable by having a secondary of the same termination be- 
fore it ; as, 

John behaves civilly to all men. John behaves truly 
civil to all men. [I or other distinctions see the large 
Grammar.] 

Lessor XVII. 

Henry writes elegantly, when striving, before his tutor, 
to excel his cousins. John : Helen sings melodiously at 
church. Seth behaved very awkwardly at the social con- 
cert. Maria's friend accosted me very civilly, and kindly 
invited me to his house. Time flies rapidly, and should 
therefore be diligently improved. 

Lesson XVIII. 

James went home last night, at twelve o'clock. His 
father rose and let him in. He sat some time, and finally, 
explained the cause of his having been out so late. His 
father reprimanded him mildly ; and at length allowed 
him to retire to rest. 

* Modifiers are sometimes used as asserters, while re- 
taining their meaning as modifiers ; as, 

" Charge ! soldiers ! charge ! On ! comrades ! On ! " 
Were the last words of Marmion. — Scott. 



RELATIVES. 91 



Lesson XIX. 



Deal justly ; love mercy ; and walk humbly before thy 
God. If you would be healthy, live temperately. If you 
would ensure a competence and its comforts, labor indus- 
triously and live frugally. If you would be honored, walk 
uprightly among men If you would be esteemed, deal 
kindly with all. If you would be happy, live religiously, 
yet be not bigoted or censorious. 



RELATIVES. 

336. A Relative is a part of speech used to 
show the relation of a fact or event to an object, 
or of one object to another ; as, 

My knife is worth a dollar. Jane went to Utica, in 
Oneida county. 

337. Relatives are of two kinds, Primary and Second- 
ary ; and some of the former class are called Independent 
relatives. 

338. Some of them also partake the natures of relatives 
and adnames ; and some partake the natures of modifiers 
and relatives : consequently they may be called adname 
relatives, or modifying relatives, according to their repre- 
sentation.* 

A PRIMARY RELATIVE 

339. Shows, of itself, the relation existing be- 
tween an object and a fact or event, or between 
one object and another ; as, 

* An adname relative, while it shows relation, refers, at 
the same time, to the quality or condition of an object ; as, 
William is like his cousin, but unlike his brother. [Like, 
as an adname relative, expresses the sense of similar and 
to — similar to; and as a modifying relative, it represents 



92 



RELATIVES. 



William went to Boston to meet Seth ; 
through the city before he met him. 



and had gone 



A SECONDARY RELATIVE 

340. Is prefixed to a primary, and qualifies, or 
renders more emphatic, the sense expressed by 
it ; as, 

William went almost to Boston to see Henry. He met 
him very near the city. He resides Jar beyond Rome. 

341. An Independent Relative represents the object de- 
noted by the word depending on it, as being independent 
of the sense expressed in the sentence to which the re- 
lative is attached, and unconnected with the event or fact 
which the sentence describes ; as, 

All except Noah and his family were destroyed. None 
of John's cousins, save Jane and Richard, reside in New 
York. 



Table of the Principal Primary 





Rel 


ATIVES. 




About 


Amidst 


Behind 


Down 


Above 


Among 


Below 


During 


Across 


Amongst 


Beneath 


Devoid of 


According to 


Around 


Beside 


Ere 


Aboard 


Aslant 


Betwixt 


For 


Aboard of 


Athwart 


Between 


From 


Ahead of 


Astride 


Beyond 


In 


After 


As for 


Besides 


From between* 


Against 


As to 


But for 


Into 


Along 


At 


By 


Instead of 


Amid 


Before 


Concerning 


In lieu of 



meaning of the words, similarly and to — similarly to. A 
modifying relative, while it shows relation, refers, at the 
same time, to the manner of action ; as, Henry walks like 
his brother. 

* Other relatives may be joined to express a two-fold re- 
lation; as, the dog came jrom under the house. 



RELATIVES. 



93 



In relation" to Past To Up 

In spite of Per [by, or Toward Upon 

Near through] Towards With 

Nigh Previous to Touching Within 

Notwithstanding Respecting Through Without 

Of Round Underneath With respect to 

Off Since Under With regard to 

Opposite Throughout Unto* Via, 

Out of Till Until [by way of.] 

Independent. 
But Except Excepting Save Saving 

343. Relatives may be used in an absolute sense, so as 
not to depend on any preceding sentence expressing a fact 
or event; as, 

" ! for a lodge in some vast wilderness." As to the 
traveler's death ; it was, most likely, caused by his being 
thrown from his carriage. " As for me and my house, we 
will serve the Lord."t 

Lessoiv XX. 
My uncle took with him, to Trenton Falls, all his child- 
ren except Sarah who was at school in Auburn. James 
stood very near the elephant ; and John was almost under 
him. The evils, like the blessings, of this life, appear vast 
a distance from us : yet, to the weak and timid, those 
blessings diminish, and those evils increase, as they ap- 
proach. 

Lessoiv XXI. 

" Look not upon the wine when it is red ; when it givefh 
its color in the cup : for, in the end, it biteth like a ser- 
pent, and stingeth like an adder. It will lead thee into 
destruction, and cause thee to utter perverse things Thou 
wilt be like him who lieth down in the midst of the sea." 

* This word should never be used. It weakens the 
grave style ; and is intolerable in any other. 

t Be particular to learn the meaning and proper appli- 
cation of each relative, and use it according to its sense. 
[See this treated of in the large Grammar.] 



94 CONNECTIVES. 



Lesson XXII. 

Hope and fear hold alternate sway in the human mind. 
When we are in prosperity, we fear coming reverses of 
fortune, which may plunge us into distress. When we 
are in the depths of 'adversity, we naturally hope for future 
good. When Hope is lost in certainty of possession, Fear 
begins her part. When Fear's worst scenes have been 
entered, Hope shows her golden light. 



CONNECTIVES. 

344. A Connective is a part of speech used to 
connect words or sentences to each other ; as, 

Henry and John were good boys, but James was the 
best scholar ; or he could not have excelled the others.* 

345. Connectives are of two kinds ; Simple and Modi- 
fying. 

A SIMPLE CONNECTIVE 

346. Merely connects words or sentences to 
each other; as, 

John, as well as James, was at the fair. Henry and 
Richard wrote the letter ; and I took it to the office. 

A MODIFYING CONNECTIVE 

347. Acts the parts of a mudijicr and a con- 
nective ; as, 

James did my work as well as John did yours. 

* Connectives may be used to unite or keep in continu- 
ance the sense of words expressed by distinct sentences ; 
as, When will you see Henry ? When I shall have re- 
turned from Rome, 



CONNECTIVES. 95 

348. List of the Simple Connectives. 



And 


But 


That 


As vv 


ell as Still 


Yet 


349. List 


of the Principal Modifying Con 




nectives. 




As 


If Since 


When 


As well as 


In case Seeing that 


Where 


After 


Lest So 


While 


Although 


Neither — nor Till 


Whilst 


Because 


Or Though 


Whether — or 


Before 


Provided Until 


Whereby 


Either — or 


Rather than Unless 


Wherein 



350. Indicates that prior and subsequent things are to 
be taken together ; (or it means both ;) as, 
Richard and Edward steal poultry. 



351. Indicates that objects are to be taken or considered 
separately ; (or it means one or the other ;) as, 

Richard or Edward steals poultry. 

BUT AND YET 

352. Indicate change in the circumstances of the nar- 
ration ; as, 

James was taken sick, but he soon recovered. 



353 (Opposed to those words,) indicates continuance of 
the circumstances of the narration ; as, 

Henry fell sick, and, lingering some time, died. 

CORRESPONDING CONNECTIVES. 

354. A Modifying connective is sometimes placed in one 
part of a sentence, in such a manner as to require a cor- 
responding connective in another part ; both of which con- 



96 CONNECTIVES. 



nectives are to be considered as one part of speech. These 
are therefore called Corresponding connectives ; thus, 

Lesson XXIII. 

Though, yet or nevertheless. Though he was v\c\\,yet 
for our sakes he became poor, that we, through his pov- 
erty, might become rich. 

Though John was wealthy, he was, nevertheless, active 
and benevolent. 

Whether-or ; as, Whether he will go, or not, I can not 
tell. 

Either -or ; as, I will either send the book, or bring it 
myself. 

jYeither-nor ; as, JVeither John nor James would aban- 
don his studies. 

As-as ; Jane is as amiable as her sister.* 

Lesson XXIV. 

James and John met each other at the very place 
wheret I had left William. 

Seth died on the day thatt Henry returned from the 
East Indies ; but he lived till his father arrived. 

Julius will start for Philadelphia when Joseph shall 
have returned from the west. Abigail and Maria will ac- 
company Julius. 

When we reflect that every man is surrounded with 
enough to render him happy, and see how many are not 
even comfortable in their minds ; we are led to think that 
the chief sources of unhappiness, are in ourselves. 

Lesson XXV. 

While we are young, we are looking forward to the ma- 
ture joys and blushing honors of manhood : but we are apt 

* For particular directions for the use of these, and the 
other modifying connectives, see the large Grammar, 
t Modifying connectives. 



INTERROGATIVES. REPLIERS. 97 



to forget that they will not be ours, unless we shall, in 
youth, adopt, by virtuous and persevering industry, the 
only means which can, in after time, produce what we now 
desire. 



INTERROGATIVES. 

355. An Interrogative is a word used to inter' 
tog ate ; as,* 

James will visit New York and the states east of tbe 
Hudson. " When?" We should detest vice, yet pity 
and seek to relieve its victims. " Why ? " 

356 An interrogative should be used without other 
words following it and referring to the same fact wherever 
it can express fully and clearly the sense of the sentence 
that must otherwise be used. [See the examples above.] 

Lesson XXVI. 

James will go to London to visit his father. "When ? I 
saw William yesterday. Where ? We should be just to 
all men, and generous according to our means. Why ? 
I shall go to New York next month. How ? 



REPLIERS. 

357. A Replier constitutes a reply to a fore- 
going question or remark ; as,* 

James, will you sell me your carriage for one hundred 
dollars ? " Yes." 

* It follows a sentence, and represents, of itself, what 
would otherwise be expressed by several words of differ- 
ent classes. 

9 



98 EXCLAMATIONS. 



358. Repliers are of two kinds : Affirmative and Nega- 
tive. 

AN AFFIRMATIVE REPLIER 

359. Gives an affirmative answer or reply; as, 
John, will you help me ? " Yes." Shall you see 

James to-morrow ? "Certainly." Will you accompany 
me to New York ? " Most assuredly." 

A NEGATIVE REPLIER 

360. Gives a negative answer or reply ; as, 
John : will you injure Williarr, ? " No ! " Will Henry 

stoop to deception ? " Never ! "* 

361. A replier should be used alone, after a sentence 
expressing the interrogation, fact or event, whenever it 
can, alone, give a full reply to the foregoing remark. [See 
the examples above.] 

Lesson XXVII. 

Can mortal man withhold his thoughts from the all-per- 
vading mind of his Creator ? No. Should speakers and 
writers, at all times, aim to improve the heart while they 
are endeavoring to inform the understanding ? Certainly. 
Can man annul any of his obligations to his Maker, his 
fellows, or himself? Certainly not. 



EXCLAMATIONS. 

362. An Exclamation is a word or phrase used 
separately from a sentence for expressing emo- 
tion ; as, 

* Many words used as other parts of speech may be 
used as repliers ; as, Henry ; how did you find William ? 



EXCLAMATIONS. 99 



Oh Israel ! Thou hast destroyed thyself. Alas ! I fear 
for life.* 

363. An exclamation should precede the sentence de- 
scribing the fact to which it alludes. [See the examples 
above.] 

Lesson XXVIII. 

Alas! Man still triumphs over the wretches whom he 
has made miserable. O glorious hope of bliss secure ! 

" O murdered, butchered brother ! "t " Oh the depth 
of the wisdom and goodness of God ! " 

Oh ! lives there, Heaven! beneath thy dread expanse, 
One hopeless, blind idolater of Chance ? 

Ah me ! the laurelled wreath, which Murder rears, 
Blood-nursed and watered by the widow's tears, 
Seems not so foul, so tainted, and so dread, 
As waves the night-shade round the Skeptic's head ! 

Campbell. 

[D 3 The same word may be used as different parts of 
speech ; as, " Yes ! let each rapture, dear to nature, flee !" 
[each an adname.] I bought three bibles for a dollar each; 
[each a modifier.] [For the explanation of this varying 
use of words, and for the principles of derivation, see the 
large Grammar.] 

"Sick." How did j^ou leave him ? " Quite well." How 
does Julius write ? " Elegantly." [The forms of these 
words must be made to correspond with the sense of the 
sentences to which they reply.] 

* No rules are given for the choice of exclamations ; as 
the author believes there is no danger of erring in relation 
to this. 

t O murdered, butchered brother ! taken together is an 
exclamation, or exclamatory phrase. [In parsing the 
words separately, O would be parsed as an exclamation ; 
murdered and butchered, both as assertive adnames ; and 
brother, a name in the independent case.] 



100 



SYNTAX 



364. Treats of selecting words with reference 
to their individual meaning and form ; and of ar- 
ranging and combining them to make sentences 
for expressing facts or events. 

A SENTENCE 

365. Is an assemblage of words describing 
some fact or event, or referring to one, and hav- 
ing as its component parts, an asserter, and a 
subjective word on which it depends for sense ; as, 

John lives. Henry ; study your lesson. Where is 
William ?* 

366 Sentences are of two kinds, — Primary and Second- 
ary. They are also distinguished as Simple, Compound 
and Complex. 

A PRIMARY SENTENCE 

367. Makes full sense of itself, or constitutes 
an independent remark ; as, 

We started for New York. James had already returned 
from the West.t 

A SECONDARY SENTENCE 

368. Expresses an entire fact or event, but re- 
presents it as connected with some other fact, on 
the expression of which the secondary sentence 
depends for its full sense ; as, 

* When the leading or most important asserter is in the 
commanding mode, absolute, the subjective word is not 
necessary. 

t Its leading asserter is in one of the first four modes. 



101 



James having already returned from the West, we 
started for New York. John being sick, I remained with 
him.* 

A SIMPLE SENTENCE 

369. Is a primary sentence standing by itself, 
and expressing one fact or event ; as, 

William attended church. Henry remained at home. 
James returned from the store. John went to school. 

A COMPOUND SENTENCE 

370. Consists of two primary sentences, united 
by a connective ; or of one primary and one 
secondary, joined without the aid of a connec- 
tive ; as, 

William attended church, but Henry remained at home. 
James having returned from the store, John went to school. 

A COMPLEX SENTENCE 

371. Is one which is formed in uniting, by 
than or as, words that must otherwise stand as 
parts of distinct simple sentences ; thus, 

Simple sentences ; John is wise. Julius is wiser. 
Henry is kind. William is equally kind. 

Complex sentences ; Julius is wiser than John. Wil- 
liam is as kind as Henry. t 

A PHRASE 

372. Is a combination of words not amounting 

* Its leading asserter must always be in the unlimited 
mode, second division. 

t The object of complex sentences is to secure brevity, 
strength and elegance without the sacrifice of clearness. 
See 398 and 401, pages 107—108. 

9* 



102 SYNTAX. 

to a complete sentence, but expressing a set of 
ideas, either separately from a sentence, or in 
connexion with one ; as, 
An elegant house. John went to Utica. 

AN APPENDANT PHRASE 

373. Consists of a name or substitute and a re- 
lative, (with or without other words attached to 
the name or substitute,) appended or joined, by 
means of the relative, to a sentence, for express- 
ing ideas in connexion with the sentence ; as, 

John traveled — A sentence. John traveled from JVew 
' York [From A r ew York, an appendant phrase.] John 
traveled from New York to Albany. [To Albany, an- 
other appendant phrase.]* 

PARSING 

374. Is describing/tfc£s in relation to words, or 
their nature, use, and powers; and, when they 
are united in a sentence, their relation to, and de- 
pendence and influence on, each other. t 

REMARKS Ox\ T PARSING. 

375. Find what are the limits of the sentence given you 
for your parsing. See whether or not there are words 
enough in ihe sentence for expressing fully and clearly, 
the ideas which the author would convey. 

* In every appendant phrase, the pupil is sure to find a 
relative and a word in the objective case depending on it. 

t Qjr This definition of parsing precludes the old prac- 
tice of parsing words:, expressed, not according to their 
meaning, use and relation to each other, but according to 
their pretended relation to something understood.' that 
should not be expressed ! :' 



SYNTAX. 103 

376. If there are not words enough used to express 
the ideas properly, supply the deficiency. If there are 
too many, throw out the superfluous words. Make the 
sentence stand as it should be spoken or written. 

377. Then find the asserter, which, taken only with a 
word in the subjective case, will make sense, as far as the 
sense extends. If the asserter is transitive, see whether 
or not it should have a word in the objective case depend- 
ing on it ; and if so, find that word. If the asserter is in- 
transitive, and has several words joined to it, divide them 
into appendant phrases. [This is particularly illustrated 
by Plate II, of the large Grammar ] 

378. Be careful to give such an analysis of the sentence 
as will represent the sense of the piece, and the meaning 
of the author, without forcing words to represent, in the 
sentence, what, in their individual capacity, they would 
not represent 

379. Never put in words under the mere pretence of 
supplying the ellipsis, [words omitted,] where there is no 
omission of words that should be used. 

ORDER OF PARSING. 

380. Distinguish the parts of speech ; and, in giving the 
minor distinctions and definitions, follow the order in which 
they are given in this treatise. 

381. When you shall have become able to define all the 
parts of speech, and their respective properties or qualities, 
you should not waste your time in repeating continually 
the reasons which you fully understand, but should name 
the various distinctions of words ; explain their relation to, 
and dependence on, each other, and give the rules which 
describe those relations and dependences. 

382. In parsing a name or substitute in the twofold case 
denoting the possessor of something, you will give part 2 
of the analytical rule III; then describe its dependence 
or relation, from its representation of the other case, and 
give the rule applicable to the other case. 

383. In parsing a word in any other twofold case, name 
its relations to the sentence, and give the same rule for 



104 



each relation that would have heen applied, if it had sus- 
tained only that single relation to the sentence. 

384. When a name is used with or without an adname, 
to act the part of an adname or modifier, give its distinctive 
traits, as a name, till you come to case, which it loses in 
being an adname or modifier; then descrihe its relation, 
as an adname or modifier, to the sentence, and give the 
rule which treats of that relation. 

385. When an asserter in the indefinite tense of the un- 
limited mode, second division, is used, with any of the va- 
riations of am or be, to express only one fact or event, let 
the two parts he parsed as one asserter; as, James was 
always trying some new scheme. 

386. When, however, the asserter, in this mode and 
tense, is, for the purpose of qualification or explanation, 
joined, with its attendant words, to the sentence before ex- 
pressed, it is to he parsed as a separate asserter ; as, James 
was never idle ; always trying some new scheme. 

387. In parsing words which bear the names of two 
parts of speech, (as assertive adnames or modifying con- 
nectives,) tell how far, and in what respect, they partake 
of the natures of those parts of speech whose Dames they 
bear; what is their influence on the sentence ; and give 
the rules relating to the principle denoted by the last term 
[as adname, or connective.'] 

388. A relative, expresses, in a phrase constituting 
an answer, the relation of the fact or Sled by 
the interrogative sentence, to the object denoted by the 
word depending on the, relative in the answering phrase. 
Thus: William ; with whom did you converse in the par- 
lor this morning ?" " With Walter." 

389. Remember, that every part of speech and subdivi- 
sion is named according to its general use ; and that when 
it is applied to some purpose different from what its name 
or definition represents, you are to describe its application 
as it is, if it is allowable; and to change it< application 
when you find it wrongly applied ; and, 

390. Lastly ; Remember that in science, as in morals, 
authority can not make right, what, in itself, is wrong ; 
or make wrong what, in itself, is right. — That in Science 



105 



and Law, in Philosophy, in every thing, the language 
of the inquirer for truth should he, " Hoio is this matter ?" 
not merely " How have other men regarded it ?" 



WHAT PARSING IS— WHAT IT IS NOT. 

(O 3 391. Remember that the practice of u parsing!" 
words properly arranged and expressed in the sentence, 
according to their relation to words "understood!" that 
should not be expressed, prevents the possibility of pars- 
ing the words used: for, as Parsing is (as admitted by 
all,) describing facts concerning words; to neglect the 
real relations of words, as used, and to describe relations 
that exist only in the imagination of a misguided Grammar- 
writer, is not parsing the words at all ; but is leaving the 
facts, and parsing mere suppositions ; is dropping the sub- 
stance to chase a phantom: and, instead of inspiriting the 
pupil by enabling him to see the relations that he is to 
describe, it only leads him into the perplexing mazes of 
inconsistency ; and leaves him involved in the labyrinth of 
doubt. 

392. O 3 It has been well remarked hy the old writers, 
that " three-fourths of all the difficulties in grammar, con- 
sist in the learner's not being able to know what words 
should be put in, to supply the ellipses which the idiom of 
the language allows. [This is like saying that, three- 
fourths of the evils incident to a virtuous life, are those 
which are attendant on the path of vice, that should not 
be trodden. These evils are not, then, the accompani- 
ments of virtue — are altogether foreign to it.] To their 
suggestions, I reply, that none of the " ellipses which the 
idiom allows," should ever be supplied ; for they are el- 
lipses only when considered in contrast with rules which, 
by these authors' own showing, are at variance with the 
principles and structure of the language. 

O* 393. If a sentence stands as it should be, and rules 
cannot be found for parsing (as it stands,) this argues de- 
fect in the rules, not in the language. The very phrase, 
English Grammar, supposes the pre- existence of the Ian- 



106 



guage, to the grammar which treats of it : and if the gram- 
mar does not accord with the language, which shall he 
condemned; the language, because it does not agree 
with the theory ; or the theory, because it is at variance 
with the language, which, in its correctness, it professes 
to describe ? If there is a disagreement between a geogra- 
phy (so called,) and the country of which it treats, shall 
we discard the country, because it does not a^ree with 
the book ; or the book, because it fails to represent the 
country ? 

394. l£j= These authors tell us " that the words under- 
stood, are not necessary to the fulness, elegance, and per- 
fect propriety of the sentence — that supplying the ellip- 
ses is only putting in such words as are necessary to render 
the grammatical construction complete!" 

395. [O 3 What is the grammatical construction ? 
" Grammar teaches us to speak and write correctly " 
The grammatical construction must then be a correct one. 
Let us see. " John, 2:0 home" — A perfect English sen- 
tence. Now, " supply the ellipses," that is, put the 
words which are necessary to make the grammatical con- 
struction complete ; — John, go thou to home ! — or, John, 
do thou go unto home ! 

396 This is the grammatical construction according to 
the old works. It must of course be their correct con- 
struction. They tell us, it is true, that a sentence, as a 
sentence, merely, may be correct in itself, and yet gram- 
matically wrong! Then, certainly, when made gram- 
matically right, it may be wrong, in fact, in its con- 
struction. Away with it! To take from grammar all 
that is grammatical, is to take the soul from the body — 
the carcass, only, is left. 



RULES FOR PARSING. 107 

RULES FOR PARSING, 

(Used also as guides in comparison.) 

Rule I. 
[397.] Part 1. — A word in the subjective case 
has an asserter depending on it for sense ; as, 

John writes. Henry ; study your Geography. James 
having died, Julius returned home.* — Except, 

[398.] Part 2. When a subjective word fol- 
lows, in a complex sentence, the asserter of a 
prior subjective, refers to the same fact, and is 
preceded by than or as, it should not have the 
asserter repeated ; as, 

James is taller than Helen. Julia is as studious AS 
Mary,! — and, except, 

[399.] Part 3. When a subjective word fol- 



* This rule is to be applied in parsing a word in the simple 
or twofold subjective case ; but not in parsing a word in the 
twofold, that represents different cases, unless one of them is 
the subjective. 

t To determine whether the latter word should, or should 
not, be considered as in the subjective case, resolve the com- 
plex sentences into two simple ones. Thus, Helen is tall 
(subjective case.) James is taller. Mary is studious, (sub- 
jective case.) Julia is as studious. 

When this word in the subjective case, refers to something 
different from what is expressed by the asserter in the sen- 
tence, it should have its own asserter ; as, James is more stu- 
dious than Seth ever will be. Also, when the clearness of 
the sentence would require the asserter, to prevent ambiguity ; 
thus, [ can lilt the weights as easily as you. This may mean 
as easily as I can lift you ; or, as you can lift the 
weights. If the former is the sense- intended, 1 should say, 
I can lift the weights as easily as I can you ; if the latter 
is the sense, L should say, I can lift the weights as easily as 
rou can. (Sec complex sentence, 367.) 



108 RULES FOR PARSING. 

lows, in the same sentence, the asserter of a prior 
subjective, and refers to the same fact, it needs 
not have the asserter repeated ; as, 

" Ten thousand warblers cheer the day, 

And one, the live-long night." 
"Life's a short summer, man, a flower." 

400. (In sentences made according - to this rule, the first 
subjective word determines the form < f the asserter; as the 
warblers chekk ; (not cheeks,) although the following 
subjective, would, if used in a simple semen* e, require a dil- 
ferent form ; as, one cheers ; or, a warbler cheers, 
(not CHEER.) 

Rule II. 
[401.] Part 1. — An asserter should have a di- 
rect dependence on a subjective word ; as, 

John whites. Henry; study your geography. John 
returned home. — Except, 

[402] Part 2. When a subsequent asserter in 
a complex sentence, refers to the preceding sub- 
jective or objective word, and immediately fol- 
lows than or as, it should be used without an- 
other subjective word ; as, 

More persons attended the lecture than could be seat- 
ed. Henry purchased as much paper as was necessary.* 
— except, 

[403.] Part 3. An asserter in the unlimited 
mode may depend on a word in the subjective, 
possessive, or the objective case ; as, 

James was seen writing a letter. I saw John walking 
alone. William's return to visit his friends, gave them 
mucht joy. — And except, 

* Follows and appears are parsed according to this 
rule ; as, he spoke as follows. Parts 1 and °2 of Rule II, 
are only the reciprocation of the principles of Parts 1 and 2, 
of Rule I. 

t The asserter in the unlimited mode, fint division, must 



RULES FOR PARSING. 109 

[404.] Part 4. An asserter may be used in the 
commanding and the unlimited mode, absolute, 
in a sentence of general remark or address ; as, 

"Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy ;" hav- 
ing your minds raised to contemplate the attributes and 
character of God.* 

405. Whenever the word to is used as a part of an assert- 
er, no word should come between that and the following part 
of the asserter ; as, I told John to immediately go home : 
(to go home immediately.) 

406. An asserter in the unlimited mode, first division, re- 
ferring- to a word in the objective case depending on the 
asserter Bin, dare, see, behold, hear, feel or make, 
used transitively, must not have to prefixed ; as, I saw John 
go home. Otherwise to must be used as a part of the asser- 
ter; as, John was seen to go home. 

407. An asserter in that mode, following the asserter 
dare without an intervening objective word, should not have 
to prefixed ; as dare visit the sick man. Otherwise to 
must be used ; as, I was dared to advance. 

403. An asserter that follows let (in the sense of permit 
or allow) should not have to prefixed; as, I let John go 
home.f 

409. The name or substitute referred to by the latler as- 
serter described in Part 2, of Rule II, determines the form of 
the asserter ; as, John purchased as much paper as was 
(not were) necessary. 

have between that and the possessive word on which it de- 
pends, some term expressing a fact or an emotion of the pos- 
sessor, as, the word return in the last example above. 
John's eagerness to start made him forget his trunk. 
The prior-past tense of the second division, requires, as be- 
tween it and the objective word on which it depends ; as, I 
represented John as having been intemperate in early life. 

* It is not necessary for the use of the commanding 
mode, that a command should actually be made ; as, Let a 
man's estate be what it may, he is poor if he does not live 
within his income — The same mode (here absolute) that would 
be requisite to express command. 

t The unlimited mode may be so used as to have a man- 
ifold dependence on the sentence ; as, John was so sick as 
to be unable to leave his room. (Here to be < 

10 



1 JO RULES FOR PARSING. 

Rule III. 

[410.] Part I. A word in the simple posses- 
sive form and case, must precede, and depend on, 
the term denoting the thing possessed ; as, 
John's book was lost. William's father's son, is my 

son's father. (What relation does William sustain lo me ? ) 

[411.] Part 2. A word in the twofold case 
representing the possessive, must sustain, to the 
sentence, the relation of another simple case, ac- 
cording to the rule pertaining to that case, as, 

John took his book and left MINE.* 

Rule IV. 
[412.] Part.!. A subsequent name or substi- 
tute given in addition to a prior one, for the pur- 
pose of emphasis or explanation, must be in the 
same case ; as, 

Julia, herself, will work that veil. John Williams, 
merchant, went to London. Intemperance, the bane ol" 
life, makes nature sigh and weep : — yet. 

on the name John ; the asserter, was : the adname. sick ; 
and the modifying connective, so-as ;. and to lkavf. depends 
on all of these, an 1, in addition, on the adname unable. 

* Mine here represents the possessive case, in deno- 
ting the possessor; and yet, from its representing the ob- 
jective relation, it depends, like a word in die simple 
objective case, on the asserter i.r.r-r. according to Rule 
VII. The singular or plural sense (as the case m y be i of the 
subjective relation that is represt ntt»d by a word, thus used, 
must determine the form of the asserter ; as. John's book was 
taken, but Henry s was left. My gloves were h. si. but his 
were not. In the first example, the word Henry's repre- 
sents the subjective relation ol die word book, (singular) that 
must otherwise have been used ; and in the next, the word his 
represents the subjective relation of the word gloves, (plu- 
ral) in whose place it stands. It therefore requires the were 
rather than was. 



RULES FOR PARSING. Ill 



413. In such a sentence the word, which the others are 
used to explain, deteimines the form of the asserter; as, 

'•John's whole propkrty. three tfARMS, two storks, and 
flour mill, was sold at auction." 

[414.] Part 2. A name, without the posses- 
sive sign, should sustain the possessive relation 
to a sentence, when given to show the character 
or capacity of an object denoted by a prior pos- 
sessive word ; as, 
Harriet's success as a teacher, 4 is unrivalled : — and, 

[415.] Part 3. A name, given only to particu- 
larize the object characterized by a subsequent 
word in the possessive case, sustains a possessive 
relation without the possessive sign ; as, 

I purchased my watch at H. Judson, the Jeweler's store.* 

Rule V. 

[416.] Part 1. An intransitive or a receptive 
asserter may have a word in the subjective case 
before, and another in the subjective after it, if 
the latter word is used to describe the thing de- 
noted by the former ; as, 

John is my friend. Webster was re-elected Senator. 
The child was named Samuel. John hoped to become a 

Civil ENGINEER. 

417. In a sentence thus formed, the first subjective word 
determines the form of the asserter ; as, 

The bliss of earth, (of toil, the recompense,) 
Is health, unbroken, peace and competence. 

[418.] Part 2. An intransitive or receptive 
asserter may have before it and as its dependence, 
two subjectives, not joined by a connective, when 

'These worth sustain the relations described, only by their 
reference to the words (denoting' the same objects,) whose 
relations to the sentence, are, at first view, quite obvious. 



112 RULES FOR PARSING. 

one is a connective or interrogative substitute, 
and the other a name or other substitute ; as, 

James is the man that I thought he was. Jane is what 
I had understood she was. You must take Henry for what 
he is represented to be. 

[419.] Part 3. An intransitive or a receptive 
asserter in the unlimited mode, depending on a 
word in the possessive case, may have, after it, 
a word in the subjective case, denoting the same 
thing; as, 

John's being my friend, saved me from inconvenience. 
William's having- become a judge, changed his whole de- 
meanor. 

[420.] Part 4. An intransitive or a receptive 
asserter, used in the unlimited mode as an asser- 
tive name, in the objective case after a relative, 
may have, in the subjective case after it, a word 
denoting the same object as the prior word ; as, 

Seth Hamilton was unhappy in being a slave to party 
prejudice. 

Rule VI. 

[421.] A word in the independent case, though 
standing distinct from a sentence describing a 
fact, may refer to the sentence, or be referred to 
by it ; as, 

John: I shall go home. Henry: when did you see my 
brother ? "An honest man, the noblest w okk of God."" 

Rule VII. 
[422.] Part I. A transitive asserter requires, 

* Work is in the independent casn, according to Rule 
IV, Part 1. A substitute nhrase may be used in the indepen- 
dent case according to this rule ; (1V ; ) as, to be plain, I do 
think that you were not blameless. 



RULES FOR PARSING. 113 

depending on it, a word in the objective case, de- 
noting the object affected ; as, 

James ate the apples which T had given* to Henry. 
John owns a farm. Helen told me whom I should 
meet. Maria SUNG a HYMN. And except, — 

[423.] Part 2. When a transitive asserter in a 
complex sentence, refers to an object before de- 
scribed and is used with its subjective word pre- 
ceded by than or as, it should not have the objec- 
tive word repeated ; as, 

Julia has more books than she can read in a week. 
James has as much properly as he can enjoy, — and except, 

[424.] Part 3. When a transitive asserter 
is used in a general sense, it should not have an 
objective word depending on it ; as, 

James eats voraciously. Maria sings melodiously.* 

Rule VIII. 

[425.] The Nominal^ of an intransitive assert- 
er, occurring after it and depending on it, causes 
it to assume a transitive relation to the sentence. 
[The substitute for the nominal has the same ef- 
fect ;] as, 

I have fought the good fight • and shall soon sleep 
the sleep of death. The race which Seth ran, was very 
short. May I live the life of the righteous, that [ may 

DIE his DEATH. 



* Eats and sings are necessarily transitive 5 as no per- 
son can eat or SING, without eating or singing something. 

t The nominal of an asserter, is the name of the action 
or fact, (considered abstractly,) which the asserter repre- 
sents as being done by something; as, sleep, the name of the 
fact of sleeping ; death, the name of the fact of dying. 

10* 



114 RULES FOR PARSING. 



Rule IX. 



[426.] A transitive asserter may have, de- 
pending on it, two objective words, not joined 
by a connective, when one denotes the object of 
the fact expressed by the asserter, and the other, 
the object to, or for, which the fact occurs ; as, 

"Son; give me tliy heart." "Forgive us our tres- 
passes." "Give us our daily bread." I paid John a 
thousand dollars.* 

Rule X. 

[427.] A receptive asserter may have, de- 
pending on it, a word in the objective case, deno- 
ting something that is represented as pertaining 
to the subject of remark, or when the subject is 
represented as pertaining to the object ; as, 

We were forgiven our trespasses. Jomi was paid a 
thousand dollars. Our trespasses were forgiven us.* 

Rule XI. 

[428.] Part 1. Either a principal or an aux- 
iliary asserter, should, when it can, be so used 
as to represent itself and the other ; as, 

If the wicked man shall turn from his wickedness, and do 
what is lawful and right, he shall not die. floury can read 
Latin as well as he can Greek. 

[429.] Part 2. A substitute asserter with 
its subjective word, should, when it can, represent 
the affirmative sense of the sentence before it, to 
which it refers ; as, 

Though Henry can not writ? legibly while ho writes fast, 
yet William can. Richard has not visited London this win- 
ter 5 but John has. 

* See the principles, involved in these two rules, explained 
in the large Grammar, stereotype edition. 



RULES FOR PARSING. 115 



Rule XII. 

[430.] Part I. A primary adname must be- 
long to, and depend on, the term denoting the 
object which it is used to describe ; as, 

James gave me ten large apples which were sweet. 
New discoveries change the relative rank of scien- 
tific men. 

[431.] Part 2. A secondary' adname qualifies 
the sense expressed by a primary; and belongs, 
with that, to the term denoting the object to 
which that refers ; as, 

William bought more than ten very large apples, which 
were unusually sweet. Many a man lost his property by 
engaging' in the land speculation. A few men passed safely 
through it.* 

[432.] Part. 3. The may be used as a second- 
ary adname or modifier, to mark definitely the 
proportion of matters or facts described by cor- 
responding parts of a compound sentence ; as, 

The more attention you bestow upon your studies, the 
greater will be your proficiency. James : the faster you run, 
the sooner you will overtake William. 

Rule XIII. 

[433.] Part 1. A primary modifier modifies 
the sentence or clause of a sentence, in which it 
occurs ; as, 

James went home with Henry; who kindly invited him 
to spend his holyday entirely with him. I traveled three 

* Here, many is secondary to a, by means of which it stands 
connected with a name in the singular form : and in the 
next example, A is secondary to few, by means of which it 
stands conmcted with a plural name. [See large Gram- 
mar, and 519— 5°20 of this.] 



116 RULES FOR PARSING. 



DAYS and TWO HUNDRED and thirty miles, westward, 
with Giles Henry.* 

[434.] Part 2. A secondary modifier qualifies 
the sense expressed by a primary, and through 
that, the meaning of the sentence in which it oc- 
curs; as, 

James went almost bome with Henry, who very kindly 
invited him to his father's residence. 1 traveled with Giles 
Henry almost three days ; and more than two hundred 
miles. 

Rule XIV. 

[435.] Part 1. A primary relative requires, in 
the objective case after it, and depending on it, the 
word denoting the object to which it shows rela- 
tion ; as, 

James walked across the room. Henry sunk below the 
surface of the water. John died prior to my return. — Except, 

[436.] Part2. When a relative refers to an object 
before expressed, and is used at the conclusion of 
a complex sentence whose last member is preced- 
ed by than or as, it should not have an objective 
word depending on it ; as, 

James had more friends than he could provide for. I 
have as many correspondents as ] can write to, — and ex- 
cept, 

[437.] Part 3. When a relative follows, imme- 
diately, an asserter in the unlimited mode, first di- 
vision, and refers to a foregoing word denoting an 
object, by, with, or concerning, which something 

* Home may be used as a modifier after an asserter ex- 
pressing tendency of motion. The asserters arkive, and 
am or be require a relative before home, as a name ; as, I 
arrived at home. I shall be at home by five o'clock. 



RULES FOR PARSING. 117 

is to be done, it should be used without an ob- 
jective word ; as, 

I have no friend to converse with. I have no carriage to 
ride in. " Many a profane wretch has a God to swear by, 
but none to believe in — none to pray to." 

[433 ] Part 4. Than immediately followed by a 
connective substitute, and, after that, by the com- 
parative form of an adname or modifier, becomes 
a modifying relative, and, as such, has, depending 
on it, a word in the objective case ; as, 

Washington, than whose fame, nanght earthly, purer has 
been seen, was appropriately termed the Father of his coun- 
try. Bonaparte, than whom was never given a more 
striking illustration of the power and frailty of man, and the 
inconstancy of human affairs, rose, like a meteor from the sea. 

[439.] Part 4. A secondary relative qualifies the 
sense expressed by a primary, and belongs to, 
and depends on, the primary; as, 

James walked almost across the room. Henry sunk 
more than twenty feet below the surface of the water.* 

Rule XV. 

[440.] Part 1. A connective, joining a subse- 
quent word to a prior one of the same class, 
causes it to sustain the same relation to a sen- 
tence as the one with which it is connected ; as, 

William or Henry must go ho.me. Richard slept 
and was destroyed. I spoke to, of, and before, my 
friends. >Seth is contented and happy. When and 
where shall I see Henry ? James writes elegantly and 

RAPIDLY f 

* Twenty as an adname belongs to feet as a name ; 
while the combination twenty feet, as well as the combi- 
nation more than, is a secondary relative: MORE than 
beina, here, a secondary relative of the second class. 

f A connective should never join exclamations, or words of 



118 RULES FOR PARSING. 

[441.] Part 2. An adname may be joined by a 
connective to an appendant phrase or to an asser- 
ter formed by the union of any of the variations of 
am or be, with another asserter in the unlimited 
mode ; as, 

John is from home, but contented nnd cheerful. 
William is much fatigued, bit veiy sociable. 

Rule XVI. 

[442 ] Part. 1. A simple interrogative or a re- 
plier, though referring to the sense expressed by a 
foregoing sentence, stands, nevertheless, distinct 
from the sentence ; as, 

John ! I must leave you ! " Why? Can you not remain 
longer?' 7 No. 

[443.] Part 2. Modifying adnames and modify- 
ing connectives, modify the meaning of the sen- 
tence in which they occur ; as, 

I saw William where he had left his brother. I rubbed 
the silver bright. 

Rule XVII. 

444. An exclamation should si and before the 
sentence or phrase describing the fact to which it 
alludes ; as, 

Oh Israel ! thou hast destroyed thyself. Alas ! I fear for 
life. 



its own class. When, where, while, till, and how, 
because, in case, lest and provided, and other modifi- 
ers of the same general character, may connect sentences, 
but not single words. When a connective joins sentences, no 
rule needs be applied, in reference to the connection. 



119 



REMARKS ON ENGLISH AUTHORS. 

445. Writers who flourished a century ago, or earlier, 
and those who have copied their style, use expressions 
that are not consistent with the views of late philologists. 
The former class cannot be expected to have been ac- 
quainted with the more modern improvements : and the 
other have been more intent on expressing ideas, than 
on studying, in mere language, the rules by which they 
should have been guided in speech and writing. 

446. Principles then adhered to, as truth, have been ex- 
ploded by later discoveries. Mere hypotheses, in phy- 
losophy, have been superseded by theories established by 
demonstration. Literary usage has been scarcely less va- 
riable. Shakspeare's works, as published in his own time, 
have little resemblance, in style, (of language,) to the late 
editions : yet who shall say that their last dress, is not, to 
us, better than their first? The plays lose much of their 
force, it is true, not by the change of dress, (which is ne- 
cessary to their life,) but by our being drifted, by time, 
remote from the customs and scenes which inspired them — 
customs and scenes, which the preservation of the original 
style, could not have transmitted to us, but (semi-barbaric 
as that style would have been to us,) could have tended 
only to obscure. 

447. In matters of philosophy, nature scorns to yield, to 
man, her guage and seal. She demonstrates, and man her 
laborer and pupil, believes. In matters of mere literature, 
man acts less dependently ; and every age must be judge, 
of taste and propriety, for itself and the preceding one. To 
reverse this, would be to constitute as judges of modern 
correctness, persons who from the age in which they lived, 
and their ignorance of late improvements, could see but dim- 
ly, and in part, what we, with as clear a vision, and a more 
extensive range, should be able to judge as a ichole. 

448. No one man should be regarded and copied entire, 
as a model, either in morality or literature. We should be 
able to determine, what, with respect to either, is right, 
and practicable in view of all the facts ; and what, being 



120 



wrong, should be deprecated and shunned, however unex- 
ceptionable, in other respects, may be the deportment, or 
literary taste, of him who practises it. 

449. If the foregoing; remarks are just, it follows as a 
matter of course, that to parse a sentence which is con- 
structed at variance with right principles, a pupil must de- 
scribe the sentence as wrong, by giving his reasons. Then 
he should be required to tell how the sentence ought to 
stand, and what would be the characteristics and relations 
of the words correctly used. 

Examples. 

450. I had much rather be, myself, the slave. — Coicper. 
" Had be" is a form of the asserter not consistent with 

the idiom of the language. It should stand, I would much 
rather be, &c. 

451. We must or imitate or disapprove. — Young. 
Here it is seen that the first or is uselessly and wrongly 

used ; as it connects two words, the auxiliary asserter, 
and its first principal, which, according to the principles of 
the language, should not be connected by it. The or 
should, of course, be thrown out, or superseded by either ; 
as, We must either imitate or disapprove. Or and or, 
are not proper corresponding connectives. 

452 Another man got off [escaped] with a blow on the 
face. — Addison. 

453. My friend is one of those sort [that sort] of folks. 

The same. 

454. I once met with [met] a friend. — Tlxe same. 

Abb. I was [became'] my friend's bail when he was 
taken up, [arrested ] — The same. 

456. Tom Folio was employed to get together good 
editions for great men's libraries. — The same. 

To get together, should mean, to obtain, while together, 
the objects referred to. Other w r ords show that the au- 
thor's meaning was, that Tom Folio was employed to col- 
lect good editions, &c. So it should have been expressed. 

457. Our adventurer was not a man to put up with, 



121 



[to brook, or bear without resenting] such a brutal affront. 
[So brutal an affront ]— Smollett. 

458. Oh how unlike the place from whence {whence, 
or from ivhich] they fell ! — Milton. 

459 Wit, unless it be [is] directed to some useful pur- 
pose, is but a frivolous and wanton quality.* — Steele. 

460. If I were to write, [though I should write] John 
would not regard it.t — Murray. 

461. These few examples are sufficient to illustrate the 
absurdity of the pupil's feeling obliged to parse as gram- 
matical, what he sees in the works of eminent authors. 
These, if rightly improved, will lead him to examine the 
varieties of style, (as he should the moral principles,) of 
any man, before adopting them as his own. Thus will his 
intellectual powers become more acute ; and he, by look- 
ing for errors, and detecting them where they occur, will 
be enabled, in practice, to keep pace with his judgment; 
and be saved from the usual effects of association, which 
without this vigilance, produces, as the result, assimilari- 
ty to what, if known as wrong, would be avoided. 



*Be is here used in what former writers on grammar, call 
the " suB-junctive, mode present tense.'' This mode is pre- 
joined to a following sentence, and is used with a modifying 
connective which expresses condition, supposition, or cause. 
See 491 — 2, 501, 504 — 5—6, for directions in forming condi- 
tional sentences. 

t Were, in the plural form, is here used with a singu- 
lar subjective word, in what former writers call the imper- 
fect (indefinite-past) tense of the "subjunctive"' mode. Ii is 
followed by their present tense of the infinitive mode, (in- 
definite tense of the unlimited mode, first division) to ex- 
press tin' sense of the INDEFINITE tense of the inferential 
mode, (what they call the imperfect of ihe potential mode) 
whose place it wrongly supplies. If, is wrongly used in the 
place of though. If, is a conditional word 3 and though, 
the suppositive one. 
11 



122 



SYNTHETICAL PRINCIPLES. 

USED ONLY AS GUIDES IN COMPOSITION OR THE 
FORMATION OF SENTENCES. 

462. I. Mark well and distinctly, the ideas which 
you would express : 

II. Mark the relation which you wish to represent as 
existing hetween the ideas, when taken in connection: 

III. Choose, with care, such words to express the ideas, 
as will express those, and no others ; their relation to, de- 
pendence on, and connection with, each other : and then 

IV. Arrange and combine those words in such a man- 
ner as will express the ideas in all their relations, connec- 
tions, and dependences, without doing violence to the in- 
dividual meaning of the words. Thus ; William's house 
is building. 

1. To build, means to construct something : and, as the 
asserter, is building, refers to, and depends on, the name 
house, to denote the thing that is doing the act which is 
building represents, the sentence must mean, (taking the 
words according their own import,) that the house, itself, 
is constructing some edifice.— Corrected: William's house 
is being built. 

2. To say, " The house is built," would denote that 
the house has been finished, and is, now, complete — while 
to say, " The house is being built," would be to repre- 
sent the housp, as in a state, now incomplete, but tending 
towards completion. 

463. Singular names and substitutes, not preceded by 
each, or every, when denoting different objects, and con- 
nected by and, require succeeding names, substitutes, 
and asserters, referring to them, to be in the plural form ; 
as, 

James and John, are happy, because they are virtuous 
men,* — except, 



* Two or more substitute-phrases connected by and, follow 
this rule. Two or more names, denoting the same object, 
even though connected by and, require the singular form of 



123 



464. Singular names, though connected hy and, if pre- 
ceded by each, or every, require succeeding names, sub- 
stitutes, and asserters, referring to them, to be in the 
singular form ; as, 

Every officer, soldier, and servant, was taken:— but 

465. When these names are joined by and, to others not 
referred to by each or every, the twofold influence of these 
and the others, requires the asserter to be in the plural 
form ; as, 

Every woman and private soldier, and the general, were 
taken. 

466. Distributive specifying adnames, used as prima- 
ry adnames, or adname substitutes, require succeeding 
names, substitutes, and asserters, referring to them, or the 
names to which they belong, to be in the singular form ; as, 

Every child was spared. Either man is adequate to 
the accomplishment of the task which he has begun. 

467. Singular names and substitutes, connected by or, or 
preceded by neither, and connected by nor, require suc- 
ceeding names, substitutes, and asserters referring to them, 
to be in the singular form ; as, 

Richard or Edward lives at home. JVeither Henry 
nor Seth is dishonest. 

468. Never connect by or, or nor, two or more names 
or substitutes that have the same asserter depending on 
them for sense, if, when taken separately, they require 
different forms of the asserter; as, 

Neither you nor 1 am concerned. Either he or thou 
wast there. Either they or he is faulty. — Corrected: 
Neither of us is concerned ; or, neither are you concern- 
ed, nor am I. Either he tvas there, or thou wast. Eith- 
er they are faulty, or he is. 

469. A collective name, conveying the idea of all taken, 
or considered as one, requires succeeding names, substi- 
tutes, and asserters referring to it, to be in the singular 
form ; as, 

The meeting was disturbed, by one of its members. 

the substitute and the asserter ; as, The father of his country 
is no more. The w ark ion, the statesman, aud philanthro- 
pist, has gone to his eternal rest. 



124 



The Parliament is dissolved. Congress has ended its 
session. 

470. A collective name, conveying the idea of all taken, 
considered, or acting individually or severally ; requires 
succeeding names, substitutes, and asserters, referring to 
it, to be in the plural form ; as, 

My people do not consider their ways. The yeoman- 
ry of England are its chief strength." 

471. Whenever an asserter is to be used between two 
words in the subjective case, the one that designates the 
person or tiling that is referred to, must precede the asser- 
ter ; and that which marks the business, character, or 
profession, must follow it; as, 

Howard was a philanthropist. The wages of sin, is 
death ; but the gift of God, is eternal life. William Wirt 
was Attorney General. 

472. In using several names connected by and that 
are to represent the possessors of a common property, af- 
fix the sign of the possessive case only to the last ; as, 

John, James, and William's farm, is the one which 
their father left them. Jay Hathaway and Company's 
store. 

473. Whenever these names denote the possessors of 
separate property, instead of a common stock of things, the 
sign of the possessive case should be affixed to each ; as, 

Seth's, Richard's, and Edmund's farms, are those 
which their fathers left them. 

474. Names in the possessive case connected by or 
must have, after each, the sign of the possessive case; as, 
William's or John's horse was stolen. 

475. The possessive form of a word may be used in the 
twofold case, and be preceded by the relative of, denoting 
possession, only when the relative has, before it, a word 
representing a part of something; as. 

That horse was one of John's. These associates are 
some of Henry's. 

* Whenever the plural form of die name denoting one of the 
collection, can well be used l«. represent the individuals con- 
slilut ng the collection, ,t should be used ; as, The mkmbeks 
of the council were divided in their sentiments. 



125 



476. A simple substitute, unless it is one of the em- 
phaiics, should not, in the same sentence, be used after 
the name denoting the same object, and be used to sus- 
tain the same relation to the sentence ; as, 

James; hand thou me your book, or Cybook. Wil- 
liam ; go thou home, or go you home. [Omit the simple 
substitutes thou and you.] 

477. It, as a substitute, may stand for the dependence 
of an asserter that has, after it a word, a substitute phrase 
or sentence, meaning the thing or fact for which it stands ; 
as, 

It is vain that we seek happiness in any thing but 
innocence and duty. It is useless to attempt proving 
that any thing is right, which God and nature have pro- 
nounced is wrong. 

478. I. It, may be used in the place of any common 
name not denoting a human being ; as, I saw the dove 
after John had killed it : 

II. In referring to a person, when it is used in the sub- 
jective case before an asserter that has in the subjective 
after it, the name of the thing denoted by it; as, it was 
John that I met in Utica : 

III. To represent a combination of causes producing a 
certain result; as, it rains; it thunders; it freezes; it 
thaws : and 

IV. To represent an infant ; as, it died. 

479. Names and adname substitutes may be used in 
addition to, and explanatory of, simple substitutes ; as, 

Ye, princes, rulers, all adore, 

Praise Him, ye kings, who makes your power 

An image of his own. — Ogilvie. 

Ye good distressed, ye noble few, 

Who here unbending stand. — Thomson. 

480. Names require, respectively, that their simple sub- 
stitutes should agree with them in form, and the represen- 
tation of objects with respect to sex ; as, 

John was at home when I saw him. My friends left 
their goods with orders to have them forwarded to Buffalo.* 

* Masculine and feminine substitutes may be used to dis- 
11* 



126 



481. A substitute phrase, in the subjective or objective 
case, and beginning with an assertive name, in the form 
of an asserter in the unlimited mode, second division, re- 
quires the word on which it depends, to be in the posses- 
sive case ; as, 

John's having sold his father's farm was the cause of 
the old man's removal. Henrietta was delighted with 
Julia's working lace so very well. 

482. A connective substitute in the simple objective 
case, must follow the relative or precede the asserter on 
which it depends ; as, 

John is the man to whom I spoke. Henry has bought 
the books that I owned. 

483. A connective substitute requires the same form of 
the asserter, as the word for which it stands ; as, 

I who command you, am the man. 1 am the man who 
commands you. 

484. A connective substitute must have the next suc- 
ceeding asserter depending on it, when no other subjective 
word comes between that and the asserter ; as, 

James, who wroteihe letter, was a good penman. 

485. Neither art, nor any form of the asserter peculiar 
to thou, should ever be made to depend on which ; as, 

" Thou, Lord, which knowest [who knowest] the hearts 
of all men." 

" Our Father which art [who art] in Heaven." [See 
16S— 169.] 

486. Place the connective substitute next the name, 
other substitute, or combination of words, for which it 
stands; as, 

William has broken his arm, whom you met yesterday. 
The man has sold his farm, who was formerly your partner 
in trade. Corrected. — William, whom you met yesterday, 

(inguish the sex of objects denoted by common names. When 
we personify or represent as rat onal objects, inanimate thing's-, 
the subsiitui.es should agree with the i epreeentalieit. In this, 
objects of gnat power or grandeur are represented as males, 
and those to which we attach die idea of beauty, mildness, or 
beneficence, as females. The Sun and Ocean are personified 
as male ; the Earth and Moon as feminine. 



127 



has broken his arm. The man who was formerly your 
partner in trade, has sold his f;irm. 

4S7. Never make a connective substitute stand for a 
name or substitute in the possessive case ; as, 

I rode the general's horse, whose son presented, with 
the horse, the compliments of his father. Henry is his 
father's third son, whose affection for his offspring was 
never doubted. Corrected.— I rode the horse ofthegm- 
eral, whose son, &c. Henry is the third son of his father, 
whose affection, &c. 

488. In using a connective substitute, in the twofold 
case, take the form that corresponds with the simple sub- 
stitute which might represent the first of the relations that 
the twofold case represents ; as, 

I will give the reward to whomsoever [him who] will 
apprehend the rogue. Whoever [he who] will apprehend 
the rogue shall receive the reward. 

489. Use none of the connective substitutes except who, 
ivhich and that, in a simple case, in the same sentence, 
after the word for w 7 hich it stands ; as, 

James gave John the ten apples ichat [which] I had 
sent to him for that purpose. 

490. Interrogative substitutes require the names and 
substitutes constituting the answer, (whether in a simple 
or the twofold case) to correspond in form with the case of 
the interrogatives ; as, 

Who gave you that book ? John. Whose book is that ? 
Angeline's. 

491. In describing an event that continues its occur- 
rence with only some occasional, or regular intermission, 
use the present tense ; as, 

The epicure eats and drinks, revels and sleeps, with no 
higher wish, than merely to gratify his animal appetites. 

492. In expressing such facts conditionally, or supposi- 
tively, use the same form of the asserter as described in 
the foregoing ; as, 

If the epicure eats and drinks, revels and sleeps with no 
higher motive, he should not expect the sublime, consoling 
joys of the good. Though man's days are as a hand's 
breadth, yet he squanders times as though he was immortal- 



128 SYNTAX. 

493. In describing a past remark that represented a fact 
or error, based on a principle which is always the same, 
use the present tense ; as, 

The Psalmist declared that man's days are as a hand's 
breadth ; and that man, in his best estate, is altogether 
vanity. 

494. In describing, not existence or possession merely, 
but an event that you would represent, emphatically, as 
occurring at the present time, use the continuative form of 
the asserter; as, 

John is writing the contract as you proposed to have it. 
Henry is finishing the portrait. 

495. When the simple continuative form of an asserter 
is used as an assertive name, with an objective word de- 
pending on it, either omit the aHname the, before the as- 
sertive name, and the relative of, after it, or use them 
both ; thus, 

The making more brick with less materials, was indeed 
a heavy burden on the Israelites : or, Making of more 
brick with less materials, &c. ; corrected, stands, Making 
more brick, &c. ; or, The making of more brick, &c. 

496. In describing a past event, with or without refer- 
ence to another represented as occurring at the same time, 
use the indefinite-past tense ; as, 

The world was made. The creation was finished. 
John sat by me while I was writing the letter which he 
intended to take to the office. 

497. In describing two past events that occurred in suc- 
cession, and which have no reference to the present time, 
use the prior-past tense, to mark the first, and the indefi- 
nite-past, to denote the other ; as, 

Morgan had crossed the river when Cornwallis appear- 
ed. William had written before John returned. 

493. In describing a past fact, as the cause why another 
fact referred to, did or did not occur, we may use the prior- 
past tense of the declarative mode to express the cause, 
and the prior-past of the inferential to express the contin- 
gency ; as, 

If John had not been absent, I should have called at his 
store. If John had been sick, while I was at Syracuse, I 
should have known it. 



129 



499. In describing a past event that occurred in a period 
of time which is represented as being continued to the 
present and not separated from it, use the prior-present 
tense ; as, 

William has sold his farm this morning. John has re- 
turned from the West. 

500. In describing two past events that occurred in suc- 
cession, one of which is represented as a recent occur- 
rence, let the first be denoted by the indefinite-past tense, 
and the other, by the prior-present; as, 

Seth traveled eastward last summer, hut he has re- 
turned. " The Lord gave, and has taken away." 

501. In describing an event, which, by a past conversa- 
tion or remark, was represented, then, as something, either 
future, or contingent and future, use the indefinite tense 
of the inferential mode ; as, 

James told me yesterday, that if he should see (not saw) 
John this morning, he would hand him my note of yester- 
day morning. [Few rules are violated more frequently 
thank's.] 

532. In describing an event or fact, which, by a past re- 
mark, was represented as then present, use the indefinite- 
past tense ; as, 

William said if he was mistaken, he should be willing to 
re-consider the matter at any time. 

503. In expressing a present desire for a change of state 
or condition, let the asserter denoting the existence in the 
state, or condition desired, be in the indefinite-past tense; 
as, 

I wish I was at home, or, that I was at home. I wish 
men were more intent on improving their own minds and 
morals, than on seeking and reporting the faults of their 
neighbors. 

504. In using, after if, a sentence referring to the pre- 
sent time, and showing one fact as the cause of another, 
use the indefinite-past tense with, or without, the modifier 
not ; as, 

I would go home, if it did not rain. James would be at 
school, if he was not sick. If Dick was nut an intemper- 
ate man, he could support his family. The man would be 



130 



respected, if he was intelligent and virtuous. I would pay 
my debts, if I was able.* 

505. In using the inferential mode to premise, condition- 
ally, and without reference to time, one obligation as the 
grounds for inferring another, use ought to as an auxiliary, 
instead of should ; as, 

If James ought to assist his father, so also should John ; 
for they received equal parts of the estate. 

506. If and unless, as modifying connectives, bring the 
tenses forward just one division of time ; thus, 

John was not at home yesterday. If John had been at 
home yesterday I should have seen. I am not at home 
to-day; but if I ivas, I would remain there, t 

507. Shall, as auxiliary, is to be used, in a simple sen- 
tence, in dependence on a word of the first person, merely 
to express a fact contemplated as future, without obliga- 
tion or promise ; as, 

I shall have gone to Utica before you will return from 
Hartford. We shall visit Philadelphia. 

508. It is to be used in dependence on a word of the 
second or third person, to denote, on the part of the speaker 
or writer, a purpose of compulsion, to be exercised on the 
object denoted by that word, or an authoritative direction 
to him ; as, 

" Ye shall make no graven image." " Thou shalt 
speak to the children of Israel." 

509. Will, is to be used in a simple sentence, in depend- 
ence on a word of the first person, to denote a purpose of 
future action; or a promise to do something contemplated 
as future ; as, 

I will go home. We will have finished the work for 
Henry, by ten o'clock. 

510. It is used in dependence on a word of the second 
or third person, to denote a fart contemplated merely as 
something that is to occur hereafter; as, 

* See the large Grammar. 

t This principle is not applicable to the prior-present tense, 
or either of the future tenses. In refer- nee to very important 
and particular future facts, the indefinite-future tense should 
be used j as, If John shall die to morrow, I will write to you. 



131 



You will injure your health by too intense study. You 
will have started for Philadelphia, before I shall return to 
New York. 

511. In compound sentences, these auxiliaries follow, 
in their sense, the contingences expressed by the senten- 
ces in which they occur ; and in the interrogative mode, 
the above principles are exactly reversed. 

512. Never use the superlative form of an adname, in 
application to an object which is not included in the same 
class as the objects, with which it is compared ; as, 

Adam, the fairest man, 

Of men, since born, his sons ; 

The fairest other daughters, Eve.* — Milton. 

513. When we would give, in the strongest light, the re- 
presentation to be made by an adname or modifier, let the 
adname or modifier stand first in a sentence ; as, 

Great is Diana of the Ephesians. Great is the Lord, 
and greatly to be praised. Rarely, indeed, can a spotless 
patriot be found. 

514. In using two or more qualifying adnames, to ex- 
press the quality of one object denoted by a name, avoid 
the use of a specifying adname between the qualifying 
adnames ; as, 

James gave me a sour, juicy, and beautiful apple. 
William bought a young, bay, very large, and well disci- 
plined horse. 

515. In representing, by adname substitutes, several 
single objects of different qualities, numbers, or orders, let 
the name be used in the singular form, and either a, an, 
or the, or a simple substitute in the possessive case, be 
placed between the others; as, 

A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, and a poor man, were 

* This would indicate that Adam was one of his own sons, 
and the fairest one of them ; and that Eve was one of hek own 
daughters, and, in beauty, was peerless among her sisters. 
who were hek own DAUGHTERS ! Corrected (in sense) — 
Adam, a fairer man, than men since born, his sons — fairer than 
any of her daughters, Eve. [The truth of this latter sentiment 
is doubted !] 



132 



assembled in one room. Joram's second and his third 
daughter, were at church. The third and the fourth son 
of William, were at home when he died.* 

516. When, by the use of a specifying adname, we 
would refer to a particular object or class of objects, we 
should use a definite specifying adname, which, taken with 
other words, denotes particularity ; as, 

The house which John sold was almost new. "This 
is the folly of the wise."t 

517. When, by the use of a specifying adname, we 
would refer indefinitely to an object or class of objects, we 
should use an indefinite specifying adname ; as, 

1 met a man. Any person can do that work. William 
gave me an apple. 

518. A modifying adname must have the form of a qual- 
ifying adname ; as, 

William held the door open. " Charity lays the rough 
paths of peevish nature even." The road w T as made 
straight. 

519. A and an, and the distributive adnames,belong as pri- 
maries, only to singular names ; as, a man, an apple ; yet, 

520. As secondary adnames, they may belong to plu- 
ral names; as, a thousand men; a few men. 

521. Such should not be used as a secondary adname ; as, 
Such a bridal affront, — so brutal an affront. [See 457.] 

522. JYot, as a modifying connective, should not be pre- 
ceded by and or but ; as, 

James, but not Henry, [James, not Henry,] died. 

* Where there are several adnames in succession used in 
this manner, ihe singul arizing words, such as a. in k. and his, 
&c, need be placed only before the FIRST ami (he last ; as, 

the FIFTH. SIXTH, FEVEKTH, and the EIGHTH VKUSK. 

t'J'HE should nkvf.r belong to, or be placed next before, a 
connective substitute ; as, rut; which. It should be used in 
calling for anything near you. unless there are several thing; 
of the same class; in which case, if we wish for one, not 
the other, we sh >uld use that or this, thf.se or those ; as. 
Will you hand me the biead ? \Y r ill you pass the water 7 
not that bread, or that water, unless you have a preference 
of one kind or quality to another. 



133 



523. An adname, that changes its form in becoming a 
modifier, should always have the modifier/orm when act- 
ing as a secondary to an adname, modifier or relative ; as, 

James is a remarka&/e boy. He is remarka&Z?/ studious. 
He learns rematkably fast. 

524. No, as an adname, requires; as the connective, 
after it, the word or ; as, 

No gold O'- silver was found. [It requires the same 
connective when joined to the word thing, in nothing ; the 
word body, in nobody ; and when used in the substitute 
none — no one.~\ 

525. Never and not, as modifiers, require respectively, 
as the connective, or ; as, 

We should not, in youth, be addicted to levity; or for- 
get, in old age, that we have, ourselves, been young. We 
should never blame others for what th^y can not avoid do- 
ing; or excuse ourselves from doing what good we have 
power to do 

526. Neither, as a modifying connective, requires nor 
after it; as, 

We should neither propagate slander, nor suffer it to be 
done in our presence. 

527. Either, as a modifying connective, requires or 
alter it; as., I will either go to Utica, or send my son.* 

528. Into and upon, as relatives, are to be used in refer- 
ence to motion or tendency to a place : and in and on, in 
reference to a rest or remaining there ; as, 

I went into or upon the house, and sat reading in or on it. 

529. After denotes succession or pursuit : for, (as oppos- 
ed to after) denotes design ; as, 

I went after, (or pursued.) the bear. I went to the 
store for some tea. [not after it.Jt 

530 Place the appendant phrases next the words de- 
noting the objects which the appondants are intended to 
describe ; as, 

The city, built entirely of granite, contains sixty thou- 

*Kor the use of other connectives, see the large Gram, 
f For the use of relatives, see the lurere Grammar. 

12 s 



134 



sand inhabitants : not, as in a late Parisian paper, the sen- 
tence stood," The city contains sixty thousand inhabitants, ' 
built entirely of granite ! " [A hard set, truly.] 

531. Where a series of sentences, words, or appendants, 
describing successive facts or principles, occur, place them 
in the order in wbich the facts occur, or the principles are 
deduced ; as, 

John is intelligent and virtuous ; not virtuous and in- 
telligent : for, as there can not be virtue without intelli- 
gence, the latter term should stand first ; as describing a 
principle, without whose ^?re-existence virtue can not be. 

532. Avoid tautology, or a repetition of the same idea 
by different words ; as, 

I vi ent from my residence to Utica, and returned back 
home again! the same day, [returned the same day.] 

533. Avoid alliteration, or using in close and unpleasant 
connection words which have syllables of similar sound ; as, 

The greatest vexation of this nation is the rtagnofion 
in business, produced by wild speculation with the vain 
expectation of an accumulation of wealth without toil. 

534. The figurative expression, called Reversion, or 
metonomy, is allowed. This is so reversing words as to 
use the name of one thing when we mean another con- 
nected with it ; as the container for the contained ; the 
cause for the effect; or attributing to the thing operated on, 
what is felt by the operator ; as, 

The chair, (meaning the chairman) gave the deciding 
vote. Which dish (meaning the fruit in which dish) do 
you prefer. The land ploughs hard, (meaning that the 
land requires the application of great force, or a great 
effort to accomplish the ploughing.*) 

[£F The limits of this work will not allow space to be 
occupied by " False Syntax," or Exercises in Correction. 
The ordinary" Grammars " furnish examples of this kind 
enough to keep the learner engaged a term of months or 
years. Let the teacher require the pupil to collect a cer- 
tain number of examples every day or week, from his mis- 
cellaneous reading : — and give, with each, the number of 

* For other matters pertaining to Rhetoric, see large Gram. 



135 



the rule or principle of Grammar, by which it is corrected. 
This will be better for him than too exclusive reference to 
examples furnished him, as wrong, for correction ; as it 
will lead him to a critical examination of every essay that 
he shall read. 

For other matters pertaining to this subject — " Rules for 
the Transposition of Poetry," and " Examples in Pars- 
ing," the learner is referred to the large Grammar. He 
should understand that transposing words does not change 
their relations to each other, but only makes existing re- 
lations more obvious. 



PROSODY 

Treats of utterance, punctuation, (including 
characters that are not regarded as letters,) the 
use of capital letters, and versification. 

Part I. 
UTTERANCE 
Is vocal expression, and may be divided into 
two parts ; Pronunciation and Elocution. 

PRONUNCIATION 

Regards the speaking of the sounds of letters, 
syllables, and words. 

Rule 1. Give each letter which is not mute or 
silent its distinct sound : at least, so far, as by the 
utmost care it is possible to sound it distinctly in 
connection with others; yet, 

Do not give it a heavy stress of voice which would distin- 
guish it particularly from others, unless that distinction is ne- 
cessary. 

Rule 2. Give each syllable of a word its own 



136 PROSODY. 

sound; yet do not give a full stress or accent to 
all ; but allow one syllable to bear a greater stress 
of voice or force of utterance than another ; fol- 
lowing, in that pirticulaT, the accentuation of 
words, as given by our best lexicographers; as, 

Ab-bre>-vi-ate ; com-mem'-o rate, col'-lege, com-pleMion. 
ELOCUTION 

Treats of the speaking of words, when arrang- 
ed in sentences, and sentences, when arranged in 
a discourse. 

Rule I. Speak with perfect distinctness, every 
word of a sentence, varying the emphasis of the 
different words according to the nature of the 
ideas which they present, 

Giving the lull emphasis only to those words which form 
the more prominent features of a sentence or discourse. 

Rule 2. As the sense of the expression can, in 
some sentences be varied by ch mging the em- 
phasis, from one word to another ; be careful to 
adapt the emphasis to the expression of the right 
idea; as, 

I saw William's father, where he hnd seen him. (This 
would indicate that ] saw William's father where William had 
seen him.) I saw William's father, where he had seen 
him. (This would in iicate that i saw William's father where 
the father had seen William ) 

Rule 3. Follow, in speaking sentences, the 
same principle that is inculcated by rule 1, for the 
speaking of words ; that is, 

Speak with perfect distinctness, yet in a middle tone, the 
ordinary pa'ts of a discourse ; and, as occasion may require, 
(and according to the sentiment,) elevate or depress your 
voice.* 

* "Let the sound be adapUdto tlie sense," is the best direction 
that can be given for the utterance of words and sentences. 



PROSODY. 137 

Rule 4. In reading poetry, give the full pauses 
of prose, and in addition, make a pause of half 
the length of a comma at the end of each line 
that does not end with a comma, or an other 
pause. 

Part II. 
PUNCTUATION 

In dividing sentences and the words of senten- 
ces, by pauses, which aid in showing more clear- 
ly, the closer or more distant relation of ideas or 
sentiments to each other. 

The principal characters with which written sentences are 
marked, are the comma, (,) semicolon, (;) colon, (:) period, 
(.) dash, ( — ) interrogative sign, (?) exclamatory sign, (!) pa- 
renthesis, () bracket, ([]) apostrophe, (') hyphen, (-) caret, 
(7 ) double comma, or sign of quotation, ("?') index, or hand, 
(IT) paragraph, (H) sectional sign, (§) blank or ellipsis, 
(***) asterisk, and marginal references, (*t$||) and the 
brace, (/~va^) * 

THE COMMA 

Directs making a pause of a second in dura- 
tion, or less, according to the nature of the sub- 
ject, or the slowness or rapidity of the speaker's 
delivery. 

Rule 1. Several words of any class, preceding 
another of the same class, require a comma after 
each one which is not followed by a connective; as, 

William, Henry, Seth and James, were forward in all literary 
pursuits. 

Rule 2. When the words are very emphatic, 

* No particular directions for punctuation can be given, 
that will meet every contingence, in every variety of style. 
Read your piece as it should be read ; and there punctuate it 
to correspond with the reading. 

12* 



138 PROSODY. 

the comma should follow even a word that has a 
connective following it ; as, 

" I am persuader! lhat neither principalities, nor powers ; 
things present, nor things to come ; nor lite, nor death, shall 
separate me from the love of God." 

Rule 3. A name or substitute given in addition 
to, and explanatory of, a prior one, requires a 
comma after that, and the one which that is given 
to explain ; as, 

Patrick Henry, " the orator of nature," was the first elect- 
ed governor of Virginia. 

Rule 4. A name or substitute in the subjective 
case, must have a comma after it, if followed by 
an asserter in the unlimited mode, and having an 
asserter in some other mode depending on it for 
sense ; as, 

Bonaparte, wrapped in the solitude of his own original- 
ity, sat, grand, gloomy, and peculiar, a sceptred hermit, on 
the throne. — Phillips. 

Rule 5. A name or substitute in the subjective 
case, followed by an adname or by an appendant 
phrase which comes between that and its asser- 
ter, must have a comma after it, and one after the 
adname or appendant phrase ; as, 

" Charily, decent, modest, easy, kind, 
Softens the high, and rears the abject, mind." 
John, with his sisters, was met by their cousins, at the Clifton 
House. 

Rule 6. Any word except a modifier or con- 
nective, occurring before an asserter, unless it is 
the dependence of the asserter, requires a comma 
after it; as, 

John, the brother of Henry, is dead. Also, words used as 
opposites ; or similarities, require commas after them ; as, I 
spoke to, and of, my brother. 



PROSODY. 139 

Rule 7. An emphatic modifier, coming be- 
tween a word in the subjective case, and its as- 
serter, or between the auxiliary, and the princi- 
pal asserter, requires a comma before it, and an- 
other after it ; as, 

John, quite often, asserts, that he never knew a friend. He 
must, consequently, be very wretched. 

Rule 8. Appendant phrases or single words, 
when not standing in regular prosaic order, require 
commas after each of them ; as, 

" Then lambs, with wolves, shall graze the verdant mead ; 
And boys, in flowery bands, the tiger, lead." 

Rule 9. Words repeated, for the sake of greater 
emphasis, require a comma after each of them ; as, 

Never, no, never, will just Heaven accuse 

Her who, for virtue, poor, can gold and fame refuse. 

Rule 10. A name or simple substitute followed 
by a connective substitute between that and the 
asserter depending on it, must have a comma after 
it ; as, 

James, who, while here, assisted his father, is now absent 

Rule 11. A substitute phrase in the subjective 
case requires a comma after it; as, 

To envy another's talents, fortune, or lot, is, to confess our 
own inferiority. To be wise, good and useful, is the privilege 
and duty of all. 

Rule 12. A substitute phrase in the subjective 
case after an asserter, requires a comma before 
it ; as, to be good, is, to be happy. 

Rule 13. When an asserter, or any important 
word, necessary to the fullness of the sentence, 
as a simple sentence, is omitted, a comma must 
supply its place ; as, 



140 PROSODY. 

" Faith workcth patience ; and patience, experience ; and 
experience, hope."* 

Rule 14. Different members of the compound 
sentence, when representing ideas or facts in close 
connection, require commas between them; as, 

When thought meets thought, ere, from the lips, it part, 
And each warm wish springs mutual from the heart. — Burns. 

THE SEMICOLON, COLON AND PERIOD. 

The semicolon indicates a pause double in 
length of time to that of the comma. A period 
is used at the end of a discourse ; or, when oc- 
curring in a discourse, at the end of a sentence. 
The pause denoted by it should be about six 
times longer than that of a comma. 

The intermediate degrees between a comma and period are 
marked by the semicolon and the colon ; the former being- 
used when the pause to be made is nearer, in duration of time, 
to the comma, than to the period ; and the latter, when the 
pause should be nearer to the period than to the comma. 

Rule 15. A word of the second person, and in the 
subjective case, must have a semicolon after it ; as, 

John; hear me : but a word of the second person in the in- 
dependent case, standing before a sentence, requires a colon 
after it ; as, John : I saw your brother last evening. 

Rule 16. The period is to be used when the 
sentiment expressed by one sentence has not an 
immediate connection with that expressed by an- 
other ; as, 

" He spake ; and it was done. He commanded ; and it 
stood fast." 

*Here words are joined in couplets ; following subjective 
and objective words being connected with prior ones, and hav- 
ing, with those to which they are joined, a common relation to 
the other parts of the sentence. 



prosody. 141 

Rule 17. The period is to be used after each 
abbreviation of a word ; as, N. Y. S. C. 

Rule 18. The dash is to be used where there is 
an abrupt change or break in the sentence : as, 

Give me both gold and ease to make me blessed. Fool — 
sure am I, to think of bliss in these. Bliss must be — yes, it 
must, within myself, or not at all. 

Rule 19. The interrogative sign is placed at the 
close of a direct interrogative sentence ; as, 

William, where did you leave James ? Is Henry well ?* 

Rule 20. The exclamatory sign is placed after 
an exclamation, or at the end of an exclamatory 
sentence ; as, 

O Absalom ! my son ! O ! Liberty ! Alas ! I fear for life. 

Rule 21. The parenthesis includes the expres- 
sion of some idea suggested by the train of re- 
marks, and which, although not absolutely neces- 
sary to the sense of the discourse, tends to throw 
some light upon the subject ; as, 

Time is our best estate. On that (it is our only hope) hangs 
our present and future happiness. 

Rule 22. The brackets or crotchets are used to 
enclose explanatory remarks which do not belong 
to the chain of ideas or events, but may be neces- 
sary to a right understanding of a discourse ; as, 

" A gigantic statue having been seen at the mouth of the 
cavern, it was resolved that we [the French consul and myself] 
should pay it a visit." 

* In reading or speaking an interrogative simple sentence 
beginning with an as-erter, (either principal or auxiliary.) but 
no' referring to a forcgoingsentcnce, close it with a raided tone 
of voice ; except when Ihero are two members of the interrog- 
ative sentence, joined by ok in a manor implying doubt, 
when the falling tone is to close the latter member. The low 
tone is to close a sentence beginning with any other part of 
speech. 



142 PROSODY. 

Rule 23. The apostrophe is a comma used in 
the place of some letter or letters : as, 

E'er, for evpr ; ne'er, lor never. |The vowels hnve the 
same sound as though the consonants were expressed.] 

It is also used in forming the possessive case 5 as, John's 
book. 

Rule 24. The hyphen is used to join two 
words; as, church-yard ; or to keep distinct what 
should be separate syllables ; as, zo-ology, co- 
operation. 

Rule 25. The caret is a sign to show where 
the words that are interlined must be read; as, 

last 
John came some time during the week. (The necessity of 

A 

using the sign at all, shows great inattention.) 

Rule 26. The double comma, or sign of 
quotation, includes words that have been taken 
from another author ; as, 

" Do to others, as ye would that they should do to you ;" is 
termed the Savior's golden rule. 

Rule 27. Where you quote from a quotation, 
use only single commas. 

Rule 28. The index or hand ({£?*) directs 
the reader to some remark worthy of particular 
attention. 

Rule 29. The paragraph (ff ) stands at the be- 
ginning of a new subject. [This is used almost 
exclusively in the old Bibles.] 

Rule 3!). The sectional sign (§) is placed, as 
in law books, at the beginning of a section. 

Rule 31. The blank, or ellipsis, ( — ** ) is 
used where either some of the letters of a word, 
some of the words of a sentence, or some senten- 
ces of a discourse, are omitted. 



CONCLUSION. 143 

Rule 32. The asterisk and marginal referen- 
ces (* t J ||) refer the reader to the margin or bot- 
tom of the page, for some explanatory remarks. 

Rule 33. The brace («— * — ) includes words 
expressing several matters or things which sustain 
a like relation to something else. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Rule 34. The substitute 1 and the exclamation 
O, the first word of every sentence in prose, and 
the first word of every line in poetry, should be- 
gin with a capital ; as also, the names of the 
Deity, and all other particular names; including 
the names of the sciences ; as, Grammar, Geolo* 
gy, Astronomy: adnames derived from particular 
names; as, Parisian, English : and the important 
words constituting the names of theories or es- 
says; as, " Dyckman's Manual," " English 
Reader," " Christian Pattern," "Mason's Self- 
Knowledge ; " and the names of other things 
when used very emphatically ; as, 

" Know then thyself, presume not God to scan 3 
The proper study of mankind is Man : " 

and every quotation following a colon ; as, 

Always remember this maxim : " Time is our best estate." 

ftj^ Rhetoric is omitted for want of space. 
See the large Grammar. 



CONCLUSION. 

The foregoing pages evince that I have left the beaten track. My 
only object has been to make an English Grammar for, and from, the 
English Language. I have, in no respect, innovated for the sake of 
change. 1 have taken the terms which I deemed beit adapted to ex- 



144 CONCLUSION. 



press the facts, by whomsoever those terms have been used ; by 
whomsoever, rejected. 

I discard totally, the old practice of parsing the won!- of a correct 
sentence, according to their supposed relations to words "«/ dt r*/«i/rf," 
that might, or might not have neon expressed, — a practice at war tviih 
common sense anda violation of the very idiom which Grammar pro- 
fesses to represent. That idiom allows what " grammar writers " cull 
" ellipses .- " but it does not allow those " ellipses to be supplied. " 
They are ellipses only when viewed in contrast with rules that are 
at variance with the language. 

What would be thought ot'a topographer who should sit in his study 
and pretend to represent London or New York, as it i-, by marking 
lakes where are parks, forests where are stately temples, and sandy 
deserts where are blooming gardens ; and, when told of the d'tBClepat- 
cy, should begin to talk of his " lakes, and foiests, and deserts, un- 
derstood!" that might or might not, at some remote period, have 
existed. 

My position — parsing all correct sentences, as they are — maybe de- 
nounced as an anomaly in the history of the languages of the globe; 
and, consequently, as erroneous. fc\> It t it be denounced. Men ol sci- 
ence (in other respects) may t/iink me, wrong. I am prepared to de- 
monstrate that they are so. 1 he fact that this principle of Grammar 
has not before been discovered and applied, neither proves, nor dis- 
proves, it, true or false. It rests on a basis too strong to be shaken 
by mere asseveration. 

The all-pervading piinciple, called gravitation, had not been less ex- 
istent, because, from Nature's birth, it had not been discovered, till 
Newton held it forth, disclosed. Copernicus and Gallileo, Guttombeig 
and Faust, Harvey, Gener and Franklin, and Watt and Fulton, were 
reviled by men for being ministers of Nature, approved by Cud, to 
lead the way from age to age. They wearied Mockery. They have 
exhausted Praise. Truth, the gold of life, is Truth — early dis- 
closed, or bite 3 by whomsoever taught, (.however wise, or weak,) by 
them, or me. 

<4 Grammar-writers " have found it easier to use old terms, than to 
select and defend ri<jht ones — easier to copy rules from antique models, 
than to study the language, and diaw rules to desciibe it. 

1 object to their works, — that their terms of distinction are, to the 
English student, blank or misapplied — that their definitions are so in- 
definite as to blend ail distinctions, and hide the real differences — that 
their rules are meaningless, or at variance with the structure of the 
language — that, consequently, they dis-cou rage, rather than en-courage, 
the student — that they bewilder rather than direct him ; leaving him 
with few principles, obvious — nothing, fi/rd, hut the consciousness of 
his waste of time, his ignorance and wretchedness, lie looks for .-ys- 
tem, — he finds chaos. He asks lor bread — they give him stone. 

Reader; have you examined the entiie work? Ho ton believe the 
premises, sure — the system, tiuthr If so, will you use your influence 
to extend the flow of truth ; or will you stand in the current, to be 
borne down, as rubbish, by it Will you embrace the work) that you 
may benefit others by it ; or will you close your eyes, and stand r 
statue, — believing that God, in vain, breathed, into man, the breath of 
life; and that, without design, he said—" Let there be Ligh». : ' 



Errors. 

Page 33, 1st line, for " Manhatten," spell Manhattan. 
'* 71, 31st line, after " lighted or, - ' read lit. 
" 107, 3d line, for "comparison," read composition. 
" )07, la»t line, for " 367," read 371. 



9*L 




V • 







t* 
























***** /dfer- ^ ** -M^ ^ 



4 o^ 










?T* r^ 







* ^ V 







^o. 





















> ^ > />/^*°° .^ /i! 






v* 7 

Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proa 



J^6v t » .a.* C* Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 

• ' ' <^ VI Treatment Date: Oct. 2006 

V *1^L>+ ' .... 







. PreservationTechnologies 



A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 
1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724) 779-21 1 1 












^•^. 



<*» * 




P v ..i'J£% °, 



. ^o* 















• ""^s. A*^ *a^ 

r * av ^ .Si 






w. 






° A *^*^ V*^*V 




^ >'?''' 






%<f .v^te ^ 












J* , 







^0* 

















*-*©« 



c v * 


















"<fc .<*» *>V4^ ^ a> /- 






iVA 



♦ a^ *v .©■¥; *V> ^ 






L \B** RN < 



Of CO! 



x&& s \ 



003 



23S 



269 A » 



